rocking ece

Simple operations and properties of sequences

2008-12-01T01:19:00.000-08:00

2.1 Simple operations on signals
In analyzing discrete-time systems, operations on sequences occur frequently.
Some operations are discussed below.
2.1.1 Sequence addition:
Let {x[n]} and {y[n]} be two sequences. The sequence addition is defined as
term by term addition. Let {z[n]} be the resulting sequence
{z[n]} = {x[n]} + {y[n]} where each term z[n] = x[n] + y[n]
We will use the following notation
{x[n]} + {y[n]} = {x[n] + y[n]}
2.1.2 Scalar multiplication:
Let a be a scalar. We will take a to be real if we consider only the real valued
signals, and take a to be a complex number if we are considering complex
valued sequence. Unless otherwise stated we will consider complex valued
sequences. Let the resulting sequence be denoted by w[n]
{w[n]} = ax[n]
is defined by w[n] = ax[n],
each term is multiplied by a
We will use the notation aw[n] = aw[n]
Note: If we take the set of sequences and define these two operators as
addition and scalar multiplication they satisfy all the properties of a linear
vector space.
2.1.3 Sequence multiplication:
Let {x[n]} and {y[n]} be two sequences, and {z[n]} be resulting sequence
{z[n]} = {x[n]}{y[n]}
1
where z[n] = x[n]y[n]
The notation used for this will be {x[n]}{y[n]} = {x[n]y[n]} Now we consider some operations based on independent variable n.
2.1.4 Shifting
This is also known as translation. Let us shift a sequence {x[n]} by n0 units,
and the resulting sequence by {y[n]}
{y[n]} = z−n0({x[n]})
where z−n0()is the operation of shifting the sequence right by n0 unit. The
terms are defined by y[n] = x[n−n)]. We will use short notation {x[n−n0]} to denote shift by n0.
{x[n]}
1
n
.....
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
{x[n − 2]}
n
.....
{x[n + 1]}
n
.....
-1 0 1 2 3
Figure above show some examples of shifting. A negative value of n0 means
shift towards right.
2
2.1.5 Reflection:
Let {x[n]} be the original sequence, and {y[n]} be reflected sequence, then
y[n] is defined by
y[n] = x[−n]
{x[n]}
n
.....
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
.....
.....
.....
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
We will denote this by {x[n]}.
When we have complex valued signals, sometimes we reflect and do the complex
conjugation, ie, y[n] is defined by y[n] = x∗[−n], where * denotes complex
conjugation. This sequence will be denoted by {x∗[−n]}.
We will learn about more complex operations later on. Some of these operations
commute, ie. if we apply two operations we can interchange their order
and some do not commute. For example scalar multiplication and reflection
commute.
{x[n]} Scalar multiplication by a{y[n]} reflection {z[n]}
{x[n]} reflection {w[n]} Scalar multiplication {v[n]}
3
Then v[n] = z[n] for all n. Shifting and scaling do not commute.
{x[n]} {y[n]} − {x[n − 1]} {z[n]} = {y[−n]}
{x[n]} shift by n0 {y[n]} reflection {z[n]}
reflection shift by n0
{x[n]} {w[n]} {v[n]}
n
.....
n
.....
n
.....
0 1 2 3 -1 0 1 2
.....
{x[n]} {w[n]} = {x[−n]} {v[n]} = {w[n − 1]}
n
.....
n
.....
n
.....
0 1 2 3 0 1 2
.....
We can combine many of these operations in one step, for example {y[n]} may be defined as y[n] = 2x[3 − n].
2.2 Some properties of signals:
2.2.1 Energy of a Signal:
The total enery of a signal {x[n]} is defined by
Ex =
∞
n=−∞
x[n]2
4
A signal is reffered to as an energy signal, if and only if the total energy of
the signal Ex is finite.
2.2.2 Power of a signal:
If {x[n]} is a signal whose energy is not finite, we define power of the signal
as
Px = lim
N→∞
1
(2N + 1)
N

n=−N
x[n]2
A signal is referred to as a power signal if the power Px satisfies the condition
0 < Px < ∞
An energy signal has a zero power and a power signal has infinite energy.
There are signals which are neither energy signals nor power signals. For
example {x[n]} defined by x[n] = n does not have finite power or energy.
2.2.3 Periodic Signals:
An important class of signals that we encounter frequently is the class of
periodic signals. We say that a signal {x[n]} is periodic period N, where N
is a positive integer, if the signal is unchanged by the time shift of N ie.,
{x[n]} = {x[n + N]}
or x[n] = x[n + N for all n.
Since {x[n]} is same as {x[n + N]}, it is also periodic so we get
{x[n]} = {x[n + N]} = {x[n + N + N]} = {x[n + 2N]}
Generalizing this we get {x[n]} = {x[n+kN]}, where k is a positive integer.
From this we see that {x[n]} is periodic with 2N, 3N, ..... The fundamental
period N0 is the smallest positive value N for which the signal is periodic.
The signal illustrated below is periodic with fundamental period N0 = 4
{x[n]} By change of variable we can write {x[n]} = {x[n +N]} as
{x[m − N]} = {x[m]} and then .........as before, we see that
{x[n]} = {x[n + kN]},
for all integer values of k, positive, negative or zero. By definition, period of
a signal is always a positive integer n.
Except for a all zero signal all periodic signals have infinite energy. They may
5
have finite power. Let {x[n]} be periodic with period N, then the power Px
is given by
P − x = lim
M→∞
1
(2M + 1)
M

n=−M
x[n]2
= lim
M→∞
1
2M+1[
N−1
n=0 x[n]2 +
2N−1
n=N x[n]2 + ...
+
kN−1
n=(k−1)N−1 x[n]2 +
M
n=kN x[n]2 +
−1
n=−N x[n]2 + ...
+
−(k−1)N−1
n=−kN x[n]2 +
−kN−1
n=−M x[n]2]
where k is largest integer such that kN −1 ≤ M. Since the signal is periodic,
sum over one period will be same for all terms. We see that k is approximately
equal to M/N(it is integer part of this) and for large M we get 2M/N terms
and limit 2M/(2M + 1) as M goes to infinite is one we get
Px =
1
N
N−1

n=0
x[n]2
2.2.4 Even and odd signals:
A real valued signal {x[n]} is referred as an even signal if it is identical to its
time reversed counterpart ie, if
{x[n]} = {x[−

DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING

2008-12-01T01:10:00.000-08:00

INTRODUCTION
First of all we will try to look into the formal definitions of the terms 'signals'.Then we talk of signal processing in brief, about the classification of signals and some properties of signals.
We would even frame our main objectives in this course.

We are all immersed in a sea of signals. All of us from the smallest living unit, a cell, to the most complex living organism (humans), receive signals all the time and continue to process them. Survival of any living organism depends upon its ability to process the signals appropriately.
What is a Signal?
Anything which carries information is a signal. e.g. human voice, chirping of birds, smoke signals, gestures (sign language), fragrances of the ﬂowers.
Many of our body functions are regulated by chemical signals, blind people use sense of touch. Bees communicate by their dancing pattern.
Modern high speed signals are: voltage changer in a telephone wire, the electromagnetic ﬁeld emanating from a transmitting antenna,variation of light intensity in an optical ﬁber.
Thus we see that there is an almost endless variety of signals and a large number of ways in which signals are carried from on place to another place.

Signals: The Mathematical Way
A signal is a real (or complex) valued function of one or more real variable(s).When the function depends on a single variable, the signal is said to be one-dimensional and when the function depends on two or more variables, the signal is said to be multidimensional.
Examples of a one dimensional signal: A speech signal, daily maximum temperature, annual rainfall at a placeAn example of a two dimensional signal: An image is a two dimensional signal, vertical and horizontal coordinates representing the two dimensions. Four Dimensions: Our physical world is four dimensional(three spatial and one temporal).

What is Signal processing?
Processing means operating in some fashion on a signal to extract some useful information e.g. we use our ears as input device and then auditory pathways in the brain to extract the information. The signal is processed by a system. In the example mentioned above the system is biological in nature.
The signal processor may be an electronic system, a mechanical system or even it might be a computer program.

Analog versus digital signal processing
The signal processing operations involved in many applications like communication systems, control systems, instrumentation, biomedical signal processing etc can be implemented in two different ways
Analog or continuous time method
Digital or discrete time method..
Analog signal processing
Uses analog circuit elements such as resistors, capacitors, transistors, diodes etc
Based on natural ability of the analog system to solve differential equations that describe a physical system
The solutions are obtained in real time...
Digital signal processing
The word digital in digital signal processing means that the processing is done either by a digital hardware or by a digital computer.
Relies on numerical calculations
The method may or may not give results in real time..

The advantages of digital approach over analog approach
Flexibility: Same hardware can be used to do various kind of signal processing operation,while in the case of analog signal processing one has to design a system for each kind of operation
Repeatability: The same signal processing operation can be repeated again and again giving same results, while in analog systems there may be parameter variation due to change in temperature or supply voltage.
The choice of choosing between analog or digital signal processing depends on the application. One has to compare design time,size and thecost of the implementation.

Classification of signals
We use the term signal to mean a real or complex valued function of real variable(s) and denote the signal by x(t)The variable t is called independent variable and the value x of t as dependent variable.
When t takes a vales in a countable set the signal is called a discrete time signal. For example
t ε {0, T, 2T, 3T, 4T,...}
t ε {....-1, 0 ,1,...}
t ε {1/2, 3/2, 5/2, 7/2,...}
For convenience of presentation we use the notation x[n] to denote discrete time signal. When both the dependent and independent variables take values in countable sets (two sets can be quite different) the signal is called Digital Signal.
When both the dependent and independent variable take value in continous set interval, the signal is called an Analog Signal.
Notation:When we write x(t) it has two meanings. One is value of x at time t and the other is the pairs (x(t), t) allowable value of t. By signal we mean the second interpretation.Notation for continous time signal{x(t)} denotes the continuous time signal. Here {x(t)} is short notation for {x(t), t ε I } where I is the set in which t takes the value. Notation for discrete time signalSimilarly for discrete time signal we will use the notation {x(t)}, where {x(t)} is short for {x(t), n ε I }. Note that in {x(t)} and {x[n]} are dummy variables ie. {x[n]} and {x[t]} refer to the same signal. Some books use the notation x [.] to denote {x[n]} and x[n] to denote value of x at time n. {x(t)} refers to the whole waveform,while x[n] refers to a particular value. Most of the books do not make this distinction clean and use x[n] to denote signal and x[n0] to denote a particular value..Discrete Time Signal Processing and Digital Signal ProcessingWhen we use digital computers to do processing we are doing digital signal processing. But most of the theory is for discrete time signal processing where dependent variable generally is continuous. This is because of the mathematical simplicity of discrete time signal processing. Digital Signal Processing tries to implement this as closely as possible. Thus what we study is mostly discrete time signal processing and what is really implemented is digital signal processing.

Elementary Signals
There are several elementary signals that occur prominently in the study of digital signals and digital signal processing.

(a) UNIT SAMPLE SEQUENCE:
Defined by
Graphically this is as shown below. Unit sample sequence is also known as impulse sequence.
This plays role akin to the impulse function of continous time. The continues time impulse is purely a mathematical construct while in discrete time we can actually generate the impulse sequence.
(b) UNIT STEP SEQUENCE:
Defined by :
Graphically this is as shown below
(c) EXPONENTIALSEQUENCE:
The complex exponential signal or sequence {x[n]} is defined by x[n] = C αn
where C and α are, in general, complex numbers.
Note that by writing α = eβ , we can write the exponential sequence as x[n] = c eβn
Real exponential signals:
: If C and are real, we can have one of the several type of behavior illustrated below

For α > 1 1$
--> magnitude of the signals grows exponentially, α < 1 1$
--> It is decaying exponential.For α > 1 1$
--> all terms of {x[n]} have same sign, α < 1 sign of terms in {x[n]} alternates.
(d)SINUSOIDAL SIGNAL:
The sinusoidal signal {x[n]} is defined by
Euler's relation allows us to relate complex exponentials and sinusoids as

and
The general discrete time complex exponential can be written in terms of real exponential and sinusiodal signals.
Specifically if we write C and α in polar form and then
Thus for α = 1 , the real and imaginary parts of a complex exponential sequence are sinusoidal. α < 1, they correspond to sinusoidal sequence multiplied by a decaying exponential, 1$
-->α > 1 , they correspond to sinusiodal sequence multiplied by a growing exponential

GHAJINI SONGS FREE DOWNLOAD

2008-11-23T09:35:00.000-08:00

Hi friends
like to listen the latesT music in the bollywood then here it is.
The most awaited movie of AMIR KHAN .
GHAJINI

just visit the link given below and download them.

http://harshtheinnocent5.wetpaint.com/page/Ghajini+Free+Hindi+Mp3+Download?t=anon

enjoy the music

rab ne de bana jodi music for free

2008-11-16T08:11:00.000-08:00

Hi FRIENDS
Enjou the music of sharukh's new film rab ne de bana jodi
visit the below link and download them

http://apni.tv/forums/music/5273-download-rab-ne-bana-di-jodi-songs.html

dostana music for free

2008-11-06T21:08:00.000-08:00

Dostana Mp3 Songs Free, Dostana mp3 songs download, Dostana Songs, Dostana Music, Dostana MP3, Dostana Rm, Dostana MP3 Songs, Do

IN

2008-11-01T11:07:00.000-07:00

for online music vist in.com

UNEXPECTED EVENT

2008-11-01T11:02:00.000-07:00

Just give a gift which he or she doesn't expect which must become memeorable.
it will be surprising if u send it through a POST.

College Student's Daily Words

2008-11-01T09:38:00.001-07:00

arduous = extremely difficult, hard
use = an arduous journey

sedate = calm and relaxed
use = The speed limit in many areas is a sedate 60 kph

willful = deliberate
use = years of willful neglect by the council

ambidextrous = able to use both hands equally well
use = an ambidextrous painter

centigrade = a unit of measuring temperature
use = *

rehabilitate = To restore to a former status
use = try to rehabilitate prisoners

extent = scope
use = the extent of his injuries

collateral = securities for a debt, or accompanying
use = She used her house as collateral for a loan

reform = Change for the better
use = who will reform India's obsolete laws

stealth = secrecy, covertness
use = These thieves operate with stealth

What is Essential Core of Meditation?

2008-11-01T09:33:00.000-07:00

Here is What Osho Says

Once you have become aware of the way your being can remain undisturbed, then slowly you can start doing things, keeping alert that your being is not stirred. That is the second part of meditation -- first, learning how just to be, and then learning little actions: cleaning the floor, taking a shower, but keeping yourself centered. Then you can do complicated things.

For example, I am speaking to you, but my meditation is not disturbed. I can go on speaking, but at my very center there is not even a ripple; it is just silent, utterly silent.

So meditation is not against action. It is not that you have to escape from life. It simply teaches you a new way of life: you become the center of the cyclone.

Your life goes on, it goes on really more intensely -- with more joy, with more clarity, more vision, more creativity -- yet you are aloof, just a watcher on the hills, simply seeing all that is happening around you.

You are not the doer, you are the watcher

That's the whole secret of meditation, that you become a watcher. Doing continues on its own level, there is no problem: chopping wood, drawing water from the well. You can do small and big things; only one thing is not allowed and that is, your centering should not be lost.

That awareness, that watchfulness, should remain absolutely unclouded, undisturbed.

The essential core, the spirit of meditation is to learn how to witness. A crow crowing... you are listening. These are two-object and subject. But can't you see a witness who is seeing both? - the crow, the listener, and still there is someone who is watching both. It is such a simple phenomenon.

You are seeing a tree: you are there, the tree is there, but can't you find one thing more?-that you are seeing the tree, that there is witness in you which is seeing you seeing the tree.

Watching is meditation. What you watch is irrelevant. You can watch the trees, you can watch the river, you can watch the clouds, you can watch children playing around. Watching is meditation. What you watch is not the point; the object is not the point.

The quality of observation, the quality of being aware and alert - that's what meditation is.

Remember one thing: meditation means awareness. Whatsoever you do with awareness is medication. Action is not the question, but the quality that you bring to your action. Walking can be a meditation if you walk alert. Sitting can be a meditation if you sit alert. Listening to the birds can be a meditation if you listen with awareness. Just listening to the inner noise of your mind can be a meditation if you remain alert and watchful.

The whole point is, one should not move in sleep. Then whatsoever you do is meditation.

College Student's Daily Words

2008-11-01T09:32:00.001-07:00

breadth = width
use = *

cyclone = storm
use = *

niche = nook, best position for something
use = make a niche for himself

severity = harshness
use = *

fabricate = construct
use = he fabricated an excuse to avoid trouble

clandestine = secret
use = clandestine activities

stint = limit, assignment
use = He has just finished a stint of compulsory military service

derogatory = degrading
use = derogatory comment

benevolent = kind
use = a benevolent action

decipher = decode
use = to decipher someone's handwriting

2 Requirements of Effective Vocab System

2008-11-01T09:31:00.001-07:00

TWO requirements of any solution to be effective are:

System to offer you new words daily so all the needed words are covered once and then repeatedly
Offer you the words daily without break in systematic regular way, so you can have your momentum going and make progress

Here are several options that people try:

Using word lists - you need to remember to look up such lists a few times daily and you need to create a system to repeat the word lists
Using flash cards - same as word lists
Computer programs - good programs offer you a system that can let you revise daily depending on how much time you want to spend.
SMSs - same as word lists. Phones are still with very small screens so reading is hard
Vocab building groups of friends (club) - friends / group is helpful

Vocab Builder Mind Machines - best (example: www.MindMachineLab.com )

Audio programs - good (examples: www.executive-vocabulary.com and www.verbaladvantage.com )

www.DailyVocabBuilder.com -

College Student's Daily Words

2008-11-01T09:30:00.000-07:00

industry = business or trade, energy
use = *

inconceivable = unthinkable
use = It would be inconceivable for her to change her mind.

abduct = kidnap
use = abducted from his car

gregarious = sociable, outgoing
use = a gregarious person

swindler = cheat
use = the swindler was jailed

fabricated = constructed, invented
use = a fabricated story

lewd = sexual in an obvious and rude way
use = a lewd suggestion

culminate = climax
use = Their many years of research have finally culminated in a cure for the disease

tribute = a gift or statement showing respect
use = Tributes have been pouring in from all over the world

ancillary = supplementary, subsidiary, subordinate
use = ancillary unit

College Student's Daily Words

2008-11-01T09:29:00.002-07:00

upshot = result
use = The upshot of the discussions is that

incite = foment, provoke
use = he incited racial hatred

balm = soothing ointment, soothing, healing influence
use = a new skin balm

babble = to talk foolishly or murmur
use = he was just babbling

rebuke = criticize
use = He received a stern rebuke from the manager

parable = allegory
use = the wise man told parables

anthrax = disease
use = anthrax virus

becoming = proper
use = That's a most becoming dress

aggrieved = unjustly injured
use = He felt aggrieved at not being chosen for the team

dissolution = disintegration
use = the assembly was dissolve

College Student's Daily Words

2008-11-01T09:29:00.001-07:00

College Student's Daily Words

colloquial = informal speech
use = colloquial speech

elusive = evasive
use = Success, however, remained elusive for her

livid = enraged, reddened with anger
use = He was livid when he found out

correlation = mutual relationship, association
use = There's a high correlation between smoking and lung cancer

annex = to attach
use = turn left to go to the annex

nuisance = annoyance
use = power failure was a real nuisance

hygienic = sanitary, clean
use = It is not hygienic

hypothetical = theoretical, speculative
use = a hypothetical example

court-martial = military trial
use = he had to face a court-martial for disobeying the commanding officer

circuitous = roundabout
use = a circuitous route

GRAMMAR REVIEW

2008-11-01T09:24:00.000-07:00

UNIT - I
THE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS
A. Sentence
A group of words which makes complete sense is a sentence.
Examples
(1) Birds fly.
(2) It is a good college.
(3) The children of that school wear blue uniforms.
(4) This is the theory which throws light on superconductivity.
B. Parts of sentence
Any sentence can be divided into two parts: (1) Subject Part and (2) Predicate Part
Here are some sentences in English divided into two parts
A B
(subject part) (predicate part)
1. Birds fly.
2. Mohan is an engineer.
3. He teaches Engineering
Graphics.
4. This intelligent girl has passed her
examination in the first division.
5. The President of India has awarded him a
gold medal.
Notes :
(1) The words underlined in Part A are Subject words and those underlined in Part B are verbs.
(2) The subject is a noun or a pronoun with or without other words going with it.
(3) The predicate is the verb with or without other words going with it (other words may be object, complement, adverb, adverb phrase, etc.).
Exercise -1
Underline the subject parts in the following sentences.
1. The train arrived late.
2. He was the captain of his team.
3. There was a large crowd on the platform to receive the team.
4. Birds of a feather flock together.
5. The Prime Minister with all his Cabinet members has submitted his resignation to the President.
Exercise - 2
Underline the predicate parts in the following sentences.
1. Aeroplanes fly over my house frequently.
2. They are shortly moving out of their house.
3. He is suffering from a fever.
4. The college is furnished with the new furniture.
5. The Secretary and the members of the club have been discussing the issue since morning.
Now study the following sentences:
Group A
1. There is a beautiful garden in front of my house
2. It has been raining heavily since morning
3. There is a phone call for your friend.
Note : The words underlined in these sentences are not real subjects. They are said to be grammatical or dummy subjects.
Now study the following sentences:
Group B
1. Here come my friends and their parents.
2. There go the Principal and the members of the teaching staff.
Note: In these sentences you notice that the predicate part precedes the subject part. This is called S.P and P.P inversion. This construction is allowed in standard English. This is used for emphasis.
UNIT - II PARTS OF SPEECH - IDENTIFICATION
English words (according to their functions in a sentence) can be classified into Parts of Speech as follows:
1. Noun 5. Adverb
2. Pronoun 6. Preposition
3. Adjective 7. Conjunction
4. Verb 8. Interjection
NOUN
(Naming word) A name of a person, place, animal,
thing etc.
Examples: Rajitha, Hyderabad, lion, table, etc.
PRONOUN
A word used for or in the place of a noun. Examples: he, she, it, they, etc.
ADJECTIVE
A word that qualifies or describes a noun or a pronoun.
Examples: Our team played a good game.
adj. noun Every sentence that he spoke was adj. noun
listened to with great attention. All these proposals are good, adj.
Note: Some words are used either as pronouns or as adjectives as in the following examples.
Pronoun Adjective
a. These are good 1. These students are students. good.
b. Each of these 2. Each book has books is worth some special reading. features worth
reading.
c. Some of the 3. Some problems are problems are difficult to solve. difficult to solve.
d. Either of you can 4. Either book is good participate in the for reference. competition.
VERB
A verb expresses what the subject of a sentence is or does, or has, or what is done to it. Dr. Rao teaches English.
verb He has taught the subject for twenty-five years.
verb He is a capable teacher. verb
ADVERB
A word that modifies an adjective or a verb or another adverb.
1. I am deeply grateful to you for your timely help.
adv adj
2. This horse runs very fast.
v adv adv
PREPOSITION
Look at the words underlined in these sentences.
Work in the college begins at 10 a.m.
He wrote the document with a pen.
The Professor gave a lecture on Superconductivity.
The P.M reaches Hyderabad after the President
does.
The words underlined are called Prepositions because they normally take position before (pre) a noun. The preposition is said to 'govern' the noun that follows it. The noun is said to be the 'object' of the preposition.
Besides single-word prepositions, there are also phrases which do the work of prepositions and are called 'Phrase Prepositions.'
Types of Prepositions:
a) Single-word Prepositions
in, on, after, at, with, under, above, etc. (These are Simple Prepositions)
b) Phrase Prepositions (Complex Prepositions)
Some types of Complex Preposition structures with examples are given below.
(i) Adverb + Preposition
along with, apart from, as for, as to, away from, onto, out of, together with, upto, such as.
(ii) Verb/adjective/conjunction, etc. + Preposition except for, owing to, due to, but for, because of.
(iii) Preposition + noun + preposition
by means of, on account of, in comparison with, in accordance with, in view of, in spite of, instead of.
CONJUNCTION (Connector)
A Conjunction is a word that joins words, phrases
and sentences.
Delhi and Calcutta are densely populated cities.
She must be either the President or the Secretary of
Y.M.C.A.
The professor read the essay and was impressed
by it.
He is not only intelligent in his studies but also
industrious in his life.
INTERJECTION
word which expresses a strong or sudden feeling -surprise, joy, fear, sadness, etc. It is not grammatically connected with the rest of the sentence. Usually, exclamation mark is put after it. Examples: Ah! Hurrah! Well! Dear! Oh!
UNIT-III
PHRASES AND CLAUSES
PHRASE
A phrase is a group of words without a finite verb. There are three types of phrases.
1. Noun Phrase
A fifty year old man is seen in the garden.
2. Adjective Phrase
This chain is made of gold.
3. Adverb Phrase
Please place the chemicals in the store-room.
Note: 'finite verb' means a verb which has a tense and a 'non-finite' is a verb which does not have a tense.
Examples:
1. He has written some books.
finite verb (Present perfect tense)
2. Speaking on the occasion, the Minister said non-finite verb
prohibition would be lifted soon.
There are three types of non-finites in English: INFINITIVE, GERUND, PARTICIPLE. (*Please note that there is a separate chapter on non-finites.)
CLAUSE
A Clause is a group of words which contains a 'finite verb'. Clauses are of two types:
1. Main Clauses
2. Subordinate Clauses
A Main Clause is also called Principal Clause or Independent Clause. It does not have further varieties.
A Subordinate Clause, which can also be called Dependent Clause, has three types: •
NOUN CLAUSE, ADJECTIVE CLAUSE, ADVERB CLAUSE
Now study the uses (functions) of these three types of clauses.
1. THE NOUN CLAUSE is used as a. the subject of a verb.
That he will be appointed to the job is certain s v
b. the object of a verb.
We knew that the plan was impractical, v o
c. the complement of a verb
Our hope is that he will improve in due course. v compl
d. the complement of an adjective We were certain that he would pass
adj compl
I am hopeful that he will agree to out proposal. adj compl
Note: When the noun clause is an object or a complement, the conjunction that may be omitted.
Example:
I believed he was right. (I believed that he was right) v o
I was sure he was right. (I was sure that he was right) adj compl
e. in apposition to the noun before it.
The suggestion that the meeting should be adjourned
N N.CI (in apposition)
was unanimously accepted.
f. Wh - clauses as Noun Clauses
Wh - clauses do all the five functions the 'that'
clauses do. In addition to these, they can
function as objects of prepositions.
Examples:
Subject:
What you say is true. Where he lives is a
mystery.
Object:
I don't know what he would say to this proposal.
Subject Complement:
The question is who will bell the cat.
In apposition:
My question, who is responsible for the loss,
has not been answered.
Adjectival Complement:
I wasn't sure whose fault it was.
Object of a Preposition:
We were not aware of what they were doing.
g. If/whether clauses as noun clauses:
I asked him if/whether he can speak
French.
I don't know if/whether he has been
appointed or not.
I don't care whether he attends the meeting
or not.
Whether he comes or not doesn't worry my
boss.
2. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES: (also called relative clauses)
a. The young man who was here a little while ago
antecedent adj cl
is the President of the union.
b. I have finished reading the novel (that) you gave me.
ant. adj. cl
c. This is the story (which) my friend wrote.
ant. adj. cl
Note: ( ) indicates optional use, i.e., may or may not be used.
Notes:
1. The words who, that, and which introducing the relative clauses are relative pronouns.
2. Who is used to refer to persons; and that is used to refer to persons or things; and which is used to refer to things, animals etc.
3. The noun or noun phrase which a relative pronoun refers to is called its antecedent (ant.)
Special Note 1: The object form 'whom' can also
function as a relative pronoun introducing adjective
clauses.
Example:
This is the person whom you want to meet.
Special Note 2: When the adjective clause defines a place, time, or reason, we use where, when, and why in place of the relative adverbs. Examples:
1. We visited the place where Mrs. Gandhi was assassinated. (place)
2. At a time when prices are high, we must reduce our expenditure. (time)
3. Could you tell me the reason why he has not been appointed? (reason)
Note: The Possessive form whose can also introduce a relative clause.
Example: The doctor whose car I bought wants to buy it back.
3. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES:
Adverbial Clauses are of different kinds. They modify the verbs to which they are connected in meaning.
a. Adverbial Clauses of Time:
(The Conjunctions used are : when, as, while, till/until, before, after, as soon as, whenever, since, as long as, etc)
Example: Some persons in the audience were asleep while the speaker was speaking.
b. Adverbial clause of place: you may go wherever you like.
c. Adverbial clause of Reason or Cause:
(as, because, since, now that) you can be punctual to school now that you have a school bus.
d. Adverbial clause of Purpose: (So that, that, in order that)
The police officer went in plain clothes so that no one might recognize him.
e. Adverbial clause of Result of Effect: (that, so that, that)
It rained very heavily for two days so that the rivers and lakes were flooded.
f. Adverbial clause of condition: (if/unless)
If he apologizes to me, I shall forgive him.
g. Adverbial clause of concession: (though, although, even though)
Though he is intelligent he cannot argue well.
h. Adverbial clause of manner:
You may complete the work as you please.
Exercise - 3
In each of the following sentences you will find a word/ a group of words underlined. If the underlined part is a Phrase write (P) in the bracket, if it is a clause write (C) in the bracket.
1. Mangoes are expensive this year. ( )
2. I found this book in the University library. ( ) 3. This is the novel which Saul Bellow has written. ( )
4. Smoke from vehicle exhausts cause air pollution. ( )
5. On getting the information about the fire accident, the fire brigade rushed to the place. ( )
Exercise - 4
Write in the brackets provided the type of clause (Noun Clause / Adjective Clause / Adverb Clause) Underlined in the following sentences.
1. He reached the place when the sunset. ( )
2. Because you have done this, you must explain it. ( ) 3. If you can do it fast, please do so. ( )
4. The stool which has a broken leg is from the staff room. ( )
5. He expects that he would get through the examination. ( )
6. He is very rich, yet he is unhappy. ( )
7. Although he is an industrious student, he failed in the examination. ( )
8. the children clapped as the clown entered the ring. (.)
9. People started running out as soon as the accident took place. ( )
10. Please answer the call for me in case I go out.
( )
UNIT -IV
CONDITIONALS
There are two kinds of conditions - real and unreal
1. Real conditions are used for possible situations. The present tense is used in the if - clause (or conditional clause), and the future tense is used in the result clause.
If he comes to the library, I will give him these books.
pres. fut.
(It is possible that he will come)
Note: This is an open condition.
2. Unreal conditions are used for impossible or unreal situations.
(a) The past tense is used in the 'if-clause' and would, could, or might, + the simple verb is used in the main clause. If she practised well, she could win the game. (She doesn't practise well)
If she came to my house, I would give her
your message.
(She doesn't come to my house)
Note: This is an unlikely condition.
(b) When the past perfect is used in the 'if-clause', and would, could, or might + have + the past participle are used in the main clause.
If she had come to my house,
past pert. I would have given her your message.
would + have + past part (She didn't come to my house)
Note: This is a closed condition.
We can summarize the usage of the conditionals discussed above as given below:
If clause Main clause
If + Present........................ .future (result)
If + Past .................would + verb(result)
If + Past Perfect..................would + have + past
participle (result) NOTES:
(A) In general, avoid using would in the if-clause
(B) In present time unreal if-clauses, the correct form of the verb to be for all persons is were
Examples:
If he were rich, he would go the U.S.A. for
higher studies.
If I were a bird, I would fly to England without
VISA.
EXAMPLES FOR ERRORS IN USAGE OF CONDITIONALS
The following examples will make clear some of the common mistakes committed in the usage of conditionals.
A. WRONG: If I will win the contest, I will buy a new house.
RIGHT: If I win the contest, I will buy a new house.
B. WRONG:
If I had been there, I would make a speech.
RIGHT: If I were there, I would make a speech. • If I had been there, I would have made a speech.
C. WRONG: If I would have a degree from that University, I would get a good job.
RIGHT: If I had a degree from that University, I would get a good job.
UNIT - V TYPES OF SENTENCES (STRUCTURAL)
A sentence, for the purpose of analysis, can be
examined from the point of view of its structure.
Depending on the number of clauses it contains, a
sentence can be called SIMPLE, COMPLEX or
COMPOUND.
Let us look at each of these types of sentences with
examples.
SIMPLE SENTENCE
A simple sentence is that which contains only one main clause. It does not have sub-ordinate clauses. Examples:
1. My father is a senior manager in this organisation.
2. Chandigarh is a planned city.
3. Microbiology is an interesting subject for me.
Please note that there is only one finite verb in each of the above sentences. That means there is only one clause. One-clause sentence is a simple sentence.
COMPLEX SENTENCE
A complex sentence is that which contains only one
main clause and at least one subordinate clause.
Example:
As soon as the meeting began, a member said that
he wanted to raise a point of order.
Analysis:
This sentence has only one main clause and two
subordinate clauses : therefore, this is a complex
sentence.
Some more examples of Complex sentences:
1. The children rode an elephant when they visited the zoo.
2. I think that the president will not accept this proposal.
3. They were so tired that they simply had to sit down to take rest.
4. He decided he would have to get someone cut down the trees in the garden.
5. If you want a passport, you must consult the passport issuing authority in the city.
COMPOUND SENTENCE
A compound sentence is that which contains at least two main clauses. It may or may not have subordinate clauses.
Examples:
1. You may either stay in the hostel or stay with your relatives.
2. The flowers were blooming, the birds were singing, and spring was in the air.
Analysis:
In sentence 1, there are two main clauses.
In sentence 2, there are three main clauses.
So each of them is a compound sentence.
Some more examples of compound sentences:
1. I went to his farm-house several times, but I was unable to meet him.
2. He is very intelligent, yet he has failed in the examination.
3. Many doctors are attending on him, still he is not out of danger.
4. He is very tired, for he has been working since morning.
5. There is no Quorum, so the meeting was adjourned.
Exercise - 5
Identify the type of sentence - Simple, Complex or Compound.
1. As soon as the boy saw the cobra, he began to cry.
2. The South Pole is too cold for human beings to live
3. A hundred per cent in English is too high a score to achieve.
4. On account of mismanagement, the company suffered a great loss.
5. In spite of being supplied with the best weapons, the army could not win the battle.
6. The rooms were so selected as to enable me in reaching the place of my interview.
7. It is in the field of education that the seed of secularism had to be sown at the earliest stage possible so that the plant can be carefully nurtured as it grows.
8. Our hope that the clouds would disperse, was cheering.
9. To most people a long journey by motor-car is exhausting and disagreeable.
10. Although mountains are undoubtedly impressive, they have a kind of dreadful monotony that makes people like me feel hostile to their beauty.
UNIT - VI
TYPES OF SENTENCES (SEMANTIC)
Based on the meaning (Semantic), sentences are classified as:
1. Assertive sentences
2. Imperative sentences
3. Interrogative sentences
4. Exclamatory sentences
5. Affirmative sentences
6. Negative sentences
ASSERTIVE SENTENCES (OR) DECLARATIVE SENTENCES
Sentences which state facts, describe things, or
report events are called assertive or declarative
sentences
Examples:
Dr Mohan teaches English.
Varanasi is on the banks of the Ganga.
Hyderabad is the capital of Andhra Pradesh.
IMPERATIVE SENTENCES
Sentences that express an order, a request, advice,
a direction, a suggestion, a command, etc. are
imperative sentences. These sentences start with
the verb, and the subject (You) is understood.
Examples:
Take these books to the library.
Get me a cup of coffee, please.
Be neither a borrower nor a lender.
Note: There are some sentences which express 'commands' in an indirect way. Let is used at the beginning of these sentences. Subject is not omitted but expressed in these sentences.
Examples:
Let the manager talk to the director first.
Let's start at once.
Let the boys assemble in the auditorium for the
seminar.
INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES
Sentences that are used to make enquiries and to ask questions are interrogative or question sentences.
Examples:
Can I help you?
What shall we have for lunch?
Is the bus late this morning?
EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES
Sentences that express surprise, admiration, pity,
sorrow and other feelings in an emphatic way are
called exclamatory sentences.
Examples:
How fast time flies!
What a beautiful view we have from here!
What a wonderful piece of art this is!
What a tragedy!
AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCES
You have seen that all the sentences given above as examples are statements, commands, questions and exclamations. They affirm something in a positive way. They are affirmative sentences.
NEGATIVE SENTENCES
Look at the following sentences.
Examples:
He is not a rich man.
I cannot complete this work today.
They don't understand our difficulties.
I have never watched a test-match.
All these are also statements but they use words such as NOT and NEVER and are negative in meaning. They are called negative sentences.
Note : Commands can also be negative
Example: Don't touch those glass exhibits.
Sentences of this kind are called negative commands, or prohibitions., Also, there can be questions which are negative:
Hasn't he got a car?
Why didn't you come to the class in time?
Sentences of this kind are called negative Questions.
UNIT-VII
NON-FINITES
Non-finites are verb forms which do not give complete (finite) meaning. They have none of the tenses, have no number and take no modals (auxiliary verbs). There are four types of non-finites:
1. Infinitive
2. Gerund
3. Present participle
4. Past participle
Look at these sentences:
1. She wants to buy a new house. (Infinitive)
2. Buying a new house needs money. (Gerund)
3. I found him looking for a new house. (Present participle)
4. Wounded in the war the soldier was brought to the medical camp. (Past participle)
THE INFINITIVES
1. Look at the forms of the infinitive in the following sentences:
a. Rajitha wanted to learn photography.
b. She is reported to be learning it.
c. She is reported to have learnt painting already.
d. She is known to have been learning music for the last five years.
In these sentences you see four forms of the infinitive. The following are the structures of these four infinitives.
Sentence (a) to + verb Sentence (b) to be + verb -ing (present participle) Sentence (c) to have + past participle Sentence (d) to have + past participle of be + verb -ing
Some of these forms have the corresponding passive voice.
to learn - to be learnt:
There is a great deal to be learnt in photography.
to have asked - to have been asked:
He was happy to have been asked to deliver the
convocation address.
2. The infinitives shown above have the word to before them. But look at these sentences:
a. The mother made the child drink the medicine.
b. Then she let the child go out and play
The words underlined are infinitives but to is omitted. This omission takes place after certain verbs like : make, let, see, hear, watch, bid, need, dare.
Exercise - 6
Rewrite the following sentences using to, wherever necessary, before the verbs given in the brackets.
1. Dr Rao asked his daughter__________home
before 9 O' clock. (come)
2. If you have planned___________the airport
before five, you had better________at once.
(reach, start)
3. He wouldn't let anyone ___________ his
bicycle. (use)
4. We wanted __________ the house where
Mahatma Gandhi was born. (see)
5. He would rather_______than_________a lie.
(die, tell)
THE GERUND
The gerund and the present participle have the same form, verb + ing : swimming, walking, cutting, etc. (the gerund is also called the verbal noun)
Uses of the gerund:
a. as the subject of a verb: Swimming is a good exercise Smoking is injurious to health Speaking is easier than writing
Looking after children needs a lot of patience
b. as the object of a verb:
He likes reading detective novels.
Would you mind returning these books to him.
I hate waiting at bus stop.
c. as the object of a preposition:
The minister inaugurated the school by lighting
a lamp.
He was fined for being drunk.
He is thinking to resign his job.
They resumed their journey after resting an
hour.
d. as the subject complements: Talking to him is wasting time. Seeing is believing.
Note:
1) The following verbs can take either an infinitive or a gerund as an object.
continue regret try propose
forget neglect remember learn etc.
2) The following verbs can be followed by the infinitive (to + v) as the direct object.
agree forbid learn offer
care forget plan decide
hope pretend deserve intend
mean refuse fail etc.
3) The following verbs can be followed by the gerund (V + ing) as the direct object.
admit deny postpone appreciate
enjoy practise avoid finish
stop cannot help keep suggest
consider etc.
4) The following verb phrases (Verb + preposition) can be followed by the gerund (V + ing). Remember that gerunds, not infinitives, follow prepositions in general.
decide on think about keep on think of plan on put off look forward to
THE PARTICIPLE
Look at the words underlined in these sentences.
(i) The crying child gets milk.
(ii) We found a man running for the bus.
(iii) Inaugurating the seminar, the Education
Minister spoke about the prohibition policy.
The words underlined are participles. There are two types of participles.
(1) The Present Participle
(2) The Past Participle
The form of the Present Participle: Verb + ing Example: cry + ing
The form of the Past Participle:
V + ed Example: wound+ed
" (OR)
V + en Example: drunk + en
Note:
(1) Sometimes the spellings of the past participles are different in the case of some verbs. Example: come, hit etc.
(2) Sometimes, the present participle and the past participle can function like adjectives. Examples:
(1) The wounded soldier was carried to the
pt. part, medical camp.
(2) A rolling stone gathers no moss.
SECTION II - CORRECTION OF SENTENCES
UNIT -1 CORRECT USE OF NOUNS
A noun is a naming word. It is the name of a person, thing, animal, concept, river etc. Nouns are divided into three main kinds by writers of modern grammar.
I. Proper nouns:
All names by which persons, rivers, mountains, and things are called proper nouns. Examples : Saritha, Hyderabad, The Himalayas.
II. Countable nouns:
Countable nouns are nouns that we can count: boy ~ one boy, two boys, three boys, etc. Note: The classes of nouns known as 'common nouns' (boy, table, etc.) and 'collective nouns' (flock, regiment, crowd, troop, etc.) can be included in the larger class of countable nouns.
III. Uncountable Nouns:
(also called non-count nouns) Uncountable nouns (NCNs) name things which we cannot count or usually don't count. The classes of nouns known as Material nouns and abstract nouns can be included in this category.
Uncountable nouns fall into the following groups:
(a) Things which are considered in mass or quantity and not in numbers: sugar, sand, hair, dust etc.
(b) Materials: wood, cloth, silver, gold, iron, etc.
(c) Liquids: water, milk, oil, ink, honey, etc.
(d) Gases: steam, mist, nitrogen, air, etc.
(e) Natural phenomena: heat, cold, electricity, lightning, etc.
(f) Abstract nouns: stages of life, states of mind, qualities, processes, actions, ideas, etc.: courage, happiness, freedom, attention, childhood, honesty, enjoyment.
Note: A number of words used to refer to
qualities, states, actions, etc, are however
countable. These may be considered
exceptions.
Examples: joys, sorrows, dreams, miseries, etc.
(g) Branches of learning: Economics, Mathematics, Politics etc.
Wore: There are some uncountable nouns which we refer to in parts. When we do so, we use them with expressions such as a piece of, a grain of, a kilo of, etc. Here is a list of such expressions:
a piece of chalk a piece of information
a cake of soap a piece of furniture
a block of ice a loaf of bread
a piece of advice a log of wood etc.
These expressions have their plural forms: pieces of chalk, cakes of soap, etc.
Now study carefully some rules related to the correct use of nouns:
Rule 1:
A proper noun becomes a common noun when it is
used in the plural form, or an article is placed before
it.
Examples:
There are five Gandhis in our college.
Vijay Kumar is the Milton of your college.
Kalidas is the Shakespeare of India.
Rule 2:
A collective noun takes a singular verb.
Examples:
The committee consists of five members.
The family living next door has come from Madras.
Note: If we refer to the members of the committee or family separately, the collective noun takes a plural verb, but it (the collective noun) remains singular in form.
Rule 3:
An abstract noun can also be used as a common
noun by placing an article before it.
Example:
Rajani is a beauty (a beautiful girl)
Rule 4:
An abstract noun can also be used in the sense of a
collective noun. When an abstract noun is used as a
collective noun it takes a plural verb.
Examples:
Youth is the best stage of one's life (Abstract noun)
Youth are the pillars of the nations (Collective noun)
Rule 5:
When a material noun denotes a mass of matter, it is not used in the plural form.
Examples:
Their house is built of bricks and stones
(incorrect sentence)
Their house is built of brick and stone
(correct sentence)
Rule 6:
Some nouns have the same form for the plural as
well as for the singular. The following are some
nouns that belong to this category.
Examples:
sheep, species, deer, aircraft, offspring, yoke etc.
Rule 7:
Some nouns are used in the singular only. The
following are some nouns that belong to this
category.
Examples:
advice, corn, grain, justice, clothing, information,
poetry, scenery, machinery, hair etc.
Note: Advice is the noun form and Advise is the
verb form.
The advice of the doctor is that I should not smoke.
(noun)
The doctor advised me not to smoke. (verb)
Similarly, Practice is noun and Practise is verb.
Rule 8:
There are some nouns which are used only in the plural form. Examples:
scissors shears spectacles
trousers pantaloons shorts
bowels intestines biceps
genitals gymnastics premises
proceeds riches thanks
nuptials outskirts gallows
doldrums earnings etc.
Rule 9:
Some nouns are apparently plural in form but are
singular in use.
Examples:
news, economics, physics, measles, mumps, ethics
Note: summons is singular and summonses is plural
Rule 10:
The following nouns are always used in plural.
Examples:
cattle, public, police, people
Rule 11:
When a plural noun denotes a specific amount,
length, weight, quantity, etc. considered as a whole
the verb must be in the singular form.
Examples:
Ten thousand rupees is a large amount.
Six kilometres is not a long distance for a runner like
you.
Rule 12:
The inanimate objects (lifeless objects) which are remarkable for beauty, gentleness, gracefulness, tenderness, weakness, and so on, are treated as feminine gender. The following are Examples:
the moon, the earth, spring, virtue, peace, charity, fame, nature, hope, justice, mercy, pity, fortune, truth, victory, defeat, modesty, liberty etc.
Note: Poets refer to them as feminine gender.
Rule 13:
The inanimate things which are known for strength
courage, violence, superiority, and so forth, are
treated as masculine. The following are
Examples:
the sun, death, summer, winter, war, anger, fear,
thunder etc.
Rule 14:
When two or more nouns are joined by 'and', and a
common possession is meant, the possessive case
will be formed by adding ('s) to the last word.
Examples:
Amar and Kumar's house is really beautiful.
Note:This sentence denotes that the house belongs to both Amar and Kumar.
Rule 15:
When there are two nouns in apposition, the
possessive case will be formed by adding ('s) to the
second noun.
Examples:
(i) Penicillin, Flemming's discovery, has saved the
lives of many people. (ii) Mohan, the professor's son, is very intelligent.
Rule 16:
The possessive case of a compound noun will be formed by adding ('s) to the last word. Examples: Sister-in-law's house Commander-in-chief's office
Rule 17:
If the last syllable of a singular noun ends in -s or -
ce and the noun is followed by the word "sake", the
possessive case of the noun will be formed by
adding (') only.
Examples:
for goodness' sake, for justice' sake.
for conscience' sake, for Jesus' sake.
Exercise - 7
Correct the following sentences where necessary.
1. My friend gives me many advices regarding my future career.
2. The doctor has given me many informations about the disease.
3. The magistrate has issued a summon asking me to attend his court on Monday.
4. My hairs have turned grey recently.
5. Our office has purchased new furnitures for our department. 6. He is one of the notorious troubles-maker in the town.
7. Four thiefs broke into my cousin's house yesterday.
8. The H.M.T. factory has the latest machineries.
9. His little daughter is capable of many mischiefs.
10. The magistrate has passed order for his release from prison.
11. This scissor will not cut such a hard wire.
12. I have seen many cannons in the military parade ground.
13. The beggar is begging for alm.
14. He has lost all his luggages on his way home.
15. The company wants to dispose of the equipment.
16. She took great pain to write the essay properly.
17. The first innings is over just now.
18. These sceneries of Kashmir are beautiful.
19. My brother-in-laws will come to our house next week.
20. These golds have been brought from South Africa.
UNIT - II
CORRECT USE OF PRONOUNS
A pronoun is a word used in the place of a noun.
Types of pronouns:
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
Person Singular Plural
First person I We
Second person You You
Third person He, She, It They
Forms of pronouns: (cases)
Nominative case Accusative case Possessive
(subject) (object)
I Me My Mine
We Us Our Ours
You You Your Yours
He Him His His
She Her Her Hers
It It Its Its
They Them Their Theirs
Note: The forms my, our, your, his, her, its and their are determiners. They can also be used as possessive adjectives.
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS:
Example: This book is his.
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS:
Examples:
(1) She washed herself at a well.
(2) They killed themselves finally.
(3) I must blame myself for this.
EMPHATIC PRONOUNS:
Example:
I offered to drive the car myself. She herself did the
mistake.
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS:
Examples:
(1) That is Dr. Rao's house.
(2) These are good books.
(3) Those are some new buildings.
(4) This is your passport.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS:
Example:
(1) Some are born great.
(2) Anyone can take a horse to the pond, but no one can make it drink.
Other indefinite :somebody, anybody, anything, something, (the) other, others, another,
pronouns are nobody, nothing etc.
PRONOUNS OF NUMBER:
Examples:
(1) Of the ten guests, three were men.
(2) Many of them are not good books.
PRONOUNS OF QUANTITY:
Examples:
more, much, little, etc.
DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS:
Look at the pronouns underlined in the sentences
given below:
Examples:
(1) Everyone has his own problems.
(2) Either of these applicants can be employed.
(3) Neither of the students can get through the examination.
(4) Each of those players deserves a prize.
(5) Everybody will be given a chance to participate in this match.
These words, which are underlined, are distributive pronouns. They are called so because they refer to persons considered individually. The distributive pronouns are in the singular number and are therefore followed by singular verbs.
Note: 1. Neither is a negative word which is used to refer to two persons or things.
2. None is also a negative word which is used to refer to more than two persons or things.
3. The usage: Each one of the boys........(is
wrong)
RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS:
Look at these sentences: Examples:
(1) The two girls helped each other in every respect.
(2) The political parties quarrelled with one another.
Each other and one another express a mutual or reciprocal relationship. They are considered as single units, and are called reciprocal pronouns or 'compound personal pronouns'.
Note: Each other is usually used to refer to two persons or things and one another to more than two persons or things.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS: The words underlined in the following sentences are called interrogative pronouns because they are used in questions. Examples:
(1) Who is the president of India?
(2) Whose is this calculator?
(3) To Whom did you give the parcel?
(4) Which is the road to the hospital?
(5) What have you to do now?
Note: Observe the following sentences :
(1) Whom did you borrow this book from?
(2) Whom did she refer to in her lecture?
In such sentences as these, we usually use who in place of whom.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
Look at these sentences : Examples:
(1) The gentleman who is speaking is our principal.
(2) This is the gentleman whose guest I was in Bombay.
The words underlined are pronouns standing for the nouns used before them. The nouns are called antecedents and the pronouns are called relative pronouns. They relate the adjective clauses to the main clauses.
RULES FOR USE OF PRONOUNS
Now let us look at some aspects related to pronouns that will be helpful in answering questions in Sentence Correction.
Rule 1:
Some important uses of the pronoun "it" are given below with examples.
(a) to introduce a sentence Example: It is not certain that the president will come.
(b) to give emphasis to the noun or pronoun that follows
Example:
It was you who began the quarrel with us.
(c) as an indefinite nominative of an impersonal verb.
Examples:
It rains.
It is snowing outside.
(d) in sentences showing distance Example:
It is not far to walk.
(e) in sentences indicating time. Example:
It is ten O'clock now.
(f) to introduce a phrase. Example:
It is decided to declare a holiday today.
(g) in exclamatory sentences. Example:
What a beautiful book it is!
(h) to introduce a that clause. Example: It is said that smoking is injurious to health.
(i) as a sort of object in order to avoid repetition. Example: Let us fight it (the issue) out.
Rule 2:
While confessing a fault (or expressing a negative
idea) the sequence of the personal pronouns should
be as follows:
Example:
I, you, and he are in the wrong and will be punished.
Sequence:
First person first, second person next and third
person last.
Rule 3:
While expressing a positive idea or a praise, the
sequence of the personal pronouns should be as
follows:
Example:
You, he and I, will get an award for the good work
we have done.
Sequence:
Second person, third person and first person last.
Rule 4:
When two singular nouns are joined by and, denote
the same person or thing, the pronoun used for
them must be singular in number. The definite
article the is placed before the first noun.
Example:
The accounts officer and treasurer should be careful
in his work of keeping accounts.
Rule 5:
When two singular nouns are joined by 'and', and
are preceded by each or every, the pronoun must
be in singular number.
Example:
Every student and every teacher took his or her
seat.
Rule 6:
When a personal pronoun is connected by a
conjunction with some other word in the objective
case, it must be in the objective or accusative case.
Example:
These clothes are for you and rne.
Rule 7:
When a singular noun and a plural noun are
combined by or, either ... or, neither ... nor, the
singular noun preferably comes first in the sentence,
and the pronoun must be in the plural number.
Example:
Either the manager or his subordinates failed in their
duty in sending the official message.
Rule 8:
The personal pronouns - yours, ours, hers, theirs
and its - are written without the apostrophe (').
Examples:
Your's sincerely (wrong)
Yours sincerely (Right)
Note: It's mean It is and not belonging to it.
Example: It's a mad dog which bites its tail.
Rule 9:
When a personal pronoun is used as a complement
to the verb to be, it (the pronoun) must be in the
nominative case.
Example:
It was he, who could solve the problem easily.
Rule 10:
A pronoun should be used in the objective case in a
sentence beginning with let.
Examples:
Let him go to his office immediately.
Let her submit the records in time.
Rule 11:
One can be used to talk about people in general.
the pronoun that follows one should be one's. (not
his/her)*
Examples:
One should do his duty (wrong)
One should do one's duty (correct)
{Note: But there is a controversy here. In American English one can be followed by his or her. Students taking TOEFL or GRE or GMAT or SAT should keep this in mind. However, usually one need not worry about this problem. If a sentence begins with one, be sure that you or they DOES NOT follow. Hence it is never correct to say:
If one takes this exam without studying, you are likely to fail.
Additional example: One should never tell his secrets to a gossip if he wishes them to remain secret, (correct)}
Rule 12:
A relative pronoun must always be placed as near its antecedent as possible. Also, it must always agree with its antecedent in number, gender and person. Example:
This is the manager who abused the clerk. ant. rel. pr.
Rule 13:
Generally, the relative pronoun in the objective case
is omitted.
Example:
The student (whom is omitted) you wanted to punish
is absent today.
Rule 14:
The pronouns Who, whom and whose are generally
used for persons.
Who is used in the nominative case.
Whom is used in the objective case.
Whose is used in the possessive case.
Examples:
1. Sarita is the student who got an award.
2. They are the thieves whom the police caught.
3. This is the student whose certificates are lost.
Rule 15:
When the relative pronoun is in different cases, one in the nominative and the other in the objective, it must be mentioned twice, once for each verb.
Example:
The girl, who is my daughter and whom you met in
the library yesterday, left for Bombay this morning.
Rule 16:
Uses of WHICH:
'Which' is used in the following ways:
(1) for infants, small animals, and objects Examples:
This is the baby which was lost in the theatre. This is the dog which my friend bought from the Kennel's club.
(2) when selection is expressed. Example:
Which of these televisions do you want to purchase?
(3) to refer to a sentence Example:
He was said to be drunk, which was not true.
Rule 17:
Uses of THAT:
'That' is used in the following ways:
(1) for persons, lifeless things and small animals in the singular or in the plural number. Examples:
This is the girl that failed in the exam. This is the radio that I bought yesterday.
(2) as a substitute for a singular noun already mentioned.
(pay attention to this use particularly in the
comparative degree)
Examples:
The weather of Hyderabad is far better than
Madras (wrong).
The weather of Hyderabad is far better than that
of Madras.
(3) After a noun phrase used as direct object.
I vividly remember the night that she came. (Here that is used in the sense of when)
Rule 18:
'Either' and 'neither' are used in speaking of two
persons or places or things etc.
Examples:
Neither Mahesh nor Mohan is intelligent.
(negative meaning is implied)
Either Mahesh or Mohan is expected to get a prize.
(positive meaning is implied)
Rule 19:
Uses of each other and one another
(1) Each other is used for two persons or things or places etc.
Example:
These two students love each other.
(2) One another is used for more than two persons or things.
Example:
Those four countries always disagree with one
another.
Rule 20:
Each can come in three different positions in a sentence.
(1) Each of the students got a prize. (initial)
(2) The students got a prize each. (end)
(3) The students were each given a prize (middle)
Rule 21:
ONE is used in the following ways :
(1) For people in general. Examples:
One must try to do one's duty. One must not be proud of oneself.
(Note: One is followed by one's or oneself.
But in American English One may be followed by his
or her)
(2) In place of a noun previously mentioned. Examples:
Give me a banana which is a fresh one. Give me bananas which are fresh ones.
Rule 22:
As regards anybody, everyone, everybody, etc. the
pronoun of the masculine or feminine gender should
be used according to the context.
Example:
Everyone of the boys got his hall ticket.
Exercise - 8
In the following sentences there are errors in the use of pronouns. Rewrite the sentences after making necessary corrections.
1. Between you and I, the secretary is not a gentleman.
2. One should do your duty honestly and sincerely.
3. Good students like you and he should study regularly.
4. You, he and I are in the wrong.
5. Only you and him can do this work fast.
6. If I were him, I would not misbehave like this.
7. Everyone announced one's plans in the presence of the President.
8. She helped everyone of those boys in doing their work.
9. Every teacher and every student should do their duty.
10. Neither of the boys have submitted their records.
11. She availed of the opportunity. 12. Those two companies always help one another.
13. India and Pakistan should cooperate with one another in this matter.
14. Dear students, enjoy during the holidays.
15. The committee were divided in its opinion regarding this issue.
16. The team, after taking its bath, have gone for practice of cricket.
17. My opinion is the same as your.
18. We were told to let only you and she enter.
19. This is the scientist which won the first prize.
20. His problems are the same as my.
UNIT-III CORRECT USE OF ADJECTIVES
An adjective is a word which qualifies a noun or a pronoun.
Example: She is a good teacher, adj. noun
An adjective can be used in two ways: (1) attributively (2) predicatively
An adjective is used attributively if it is placed immediately before the noun it qualifies. Example: She is a good teacher. adj. noun
An adjective is used predicatively if it is used after the verb.
Example: Bimala is intelligent. v adj.
An adjective has three forms: Positive, Comparative, Superlative. These are the three degrees of comparison:
Look at the following examples:
Superlative degree : Mohan is the best student in
the class. Comparative degree: Mohan is better than any other
student in the class. Positive degree : No other student in the class is
as good as Mohan.
Note
1: The usages "as ........ as" and "so ...... as"
appear in positive degree Comparative degree has "adjective + er... than" Superlative degree has "the + adjective in the superlative form-Note the use of 'the', before the adjective in the Superlative (superlative form).
2: There is no superlative degree if the comparison involves only two objects, persons, places, etc. Examples:
Of the two sisters she is the best. (wrong) Of the two sisters she is the better. (correct)
When selection of one of the two persons or things (sets of things) of the same kind is
meant, the comparative degree is preceded by
'the' and followed by 'of.
Example:
She is the better of the two sisters.
Let us look at some important rules in the use of adjectives:
Rule 1:
Most adjectives from their comparative by the
addition of -r or -er, and their superlative by the
addition of -st or -est (depending on the spelling) to
the positive.
Examples:
Positive Comparative Superlative
Great Greater Greatest
Brave Braver Bravest
Rule 2:
Some adjectives (usually having more than two
syllables in the spelling) form their comparative by
using the adverb more with the positive, and the
superlative by using the adverb most with the
positive.
Examples:
Positive Comparative Superlative
Beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
interesting more interesting most interesting
Rule 3:
(very important) When two qualities in the same
person or thing are compared, the comparative
degree is formed by using more, instead of -r or -er
with the positive.
Example:
Reddy is more wise than intelligent.
(This sentence means that Reddy is both wise and
intelligent. But his wisdom is greater than his
intelligence.)
Rule 4:
When two objects are compared with each other,
the latter term of comparison must exclude the
former by using 'any other'.
Examples:
Gold is more precious than any other metal.
(correct)
Gold is more precious than any metal (wrong)
Rule 5:
There are some words which are used in the
positive and cannot be involved in the comparison,
or in the superlative.
Examples:
interior, exterior, ulterior, major, minor.
This is more interior than that. (wrong)
Rule 6:
The following are used as comparative adjectives
and are followed by to and not than:
Examples:
superior, senior, junior, inferior, prior, anterior,
posterior, prefer, etc.
Rule 7:
The adjectives - empty, excellent, circular, extreme, chief, entire, complete, perfect, final, last, unique, universal, round, square, triangular, eternal etc. are not used in the comparative or superlative degree.
Rule 8:
Some adjectives can be used only in the positive and in the superlative. They are:
Positive Superlative
top topmost
northern northernmost
southern southernmost
eastern easternmost
western westernmost
Rule 9:
The adjective "preferable" is used as a comparative.
It is followed by to. It is not used with more.
Examples:
This is more preferable than that. (wrong)
This is preferable to that. (correct)
Rule 10:
The comparative adjectives ending in "or" are
followed by the preposition to.
Inferior, superior, prior, anterior, posterior, senior,
junior
Example:
He is superior to me.
Rule 11:
Sometimes the words much, less, far, etc. are used
before the comparatives to denote emphasis or
excess.
Example:
Ramakrishna is by far the ablest lecturer in the
college.
Rule 12:
Two adjectives which refer to the same noun or
pronoun joined by a conjunction must be in the
same degree of comparison.
Example:
Gandhiji is the noblest and wisest of all national
leaders.
Rule 13:
Certain adjectives, when preceded by 'the' become
nouns in plural and require a plural verb if they are
used as subjects.
These are : rich, poor, needy, aged, blind, dead,
meek, wicked, etc.
Examples:
The rich (rich people) usually hate the poor (poor
people).
Rule 14:
Some adjectives often confused :
A. FARTHER FURTHER Farther denotes more distant in space. Example:
Sheela lives at the farther end of this street.
Further means additional: more
Examples:
There is nothing further to tell about him.
For further details please contact the director.
B. Many, a great many, a good many
All these take a plural noun and a plural verb
after them
Examples:
(1) A great many people died in the cyclone.
(2) My sister has a good many friends.
C. Use of many + a + noun (singular) + verb (singular) structure :
Examples:
Many a delegate is attending this seminar.
(meaning : Many delegates are attending this
seminar)
D. MODIFIERS: FEW, LITTLE. MUCH, and MANY
Few is used with plural nouns. Little is used with singular non-count nouns.
Without articles, few, and little usually have rather negative meanings. They often suggest 'not as much/many as one would like', or 'not as much/many as expected', or a similar idea.
With articles 'few' and 'little' i.e a few, and a little
are more positive in meaning. Their meaning is
closer to 'some'. They often suggest idea like
'better than nothing' or "more than expected'.
Examples:
The average MP has little real power.
There are few books on "Thermodynamics' in
the library, so you have to purchase them.
You don't need to go shopping. There are a few
eggs in the fridge.
I've got a little bread and cheese - it'll be
enough for supper.
Difference between fewer and less
In theory, fewer (the comparative of few) is
used before plural words, and less (the
comparative of little) before uncountable words.
Examples:
(i) There are fewer exploited workers than
there used to be. (ii) My friend earns lesser than a postman
does.
Note the following:
P.P. CD. S.D.
few - fewer - fewest
little - less/lesser - least
* fewer and less (lesser) are followed by than
as they are the comparative forms.
Note: 'Many' like 'few' is used before a count
noun.
Example:
Many/few students.
C.N. 'Much' like 'less' is used before a non-count or mass noun. Example: Much/less water. NCN
MODIFIERS - TOO, VERY, ENOUGH Compare the meanings and patterns of too, very, and enough.
1. Very means to a high degree, but does not suggest impossibility.
Mary is very intelligent.
2. Too suggests impossibility or undesirable degree.
too + adj + to + v She is too sick to come to class today Note: It is better not to use "Too" with a positive adjective. Instead of "too" it is better to use "very".
3. Enough suggests possibility or sufficient degree. He is tall enough to play basketball.
NOTES:
a. Be careful to put enough after the adjective.
b. Be careful to put to+v (infinitive) after enough.
c. In patterns 2 and 3 above, do not use any other structure word after the adjective or adverb except to.
d. In the above patterns adverbs can be used in the same position as adjectives. Example:
Mary sings very well.
e. Enough can come before or after a noun to express sufficiency.
Examples:
He had money enough to buy a new car. N
OR He had enough money to buy a new car. N
F. MODIFIERS - NEGATION
There are some words that have negative
meanings even though they do not appear to be
negative, for example : hardly, scarcely, rarely,
seldom, without, and only. Do not use another
negative word with these words.
Examples:
(i) He had scarcely enough money to
purchase books. (ii) They went to bed without dinner.
Note: Scarcely and hardly are followed by when and not than. No sooner is followed by than. This expressions mean "as soon as". Examples:
1. As soon as I reached the station the train left.
2. No sooner had I reached the station than the train left.
No sooner+had + Subject + Past participle +...
3. No sooner did I reach the station the train left. No sooner + did + Subject + Present tense verb +...........
Similarly: Hardly/Scarcely + had + Sub +
Past participle.........when.......
OR Scarcely/Hardly + did + Sub + Present tense verb.........when......
Rule 15:
MODIFIERS : ADJECTIVES AFTER VERBS OF
SENSATION
These verbs of sensation are generally followed by
adjectives* not by adverbs: feel, look, seem, appear,
smell, taste and sound.
(* These are also called predicate adjectives) He feels bad (correct)
He feels badly (wrong)
The soup smells delicious (correct) The soup smells deliciously (wrong)
Rule 16:
MODIFIERS - HYPHENATED OR COMPOUND ADJECTIVES
Nouns are sometimes found as part of hyphenated or compound adjectives (adjectives of more than one word joined by hyphens). These nouns are never plural.
I bought a four hundred year-old painting in Germany. HYPHENATED ADJ. N
Some more examples: (i) B.Com is a three-year degree course. (ii) This is a ten-kilometre-long distance. (iii) The professor has delivered a two-hour lecture today.
Rule 17:
MODIFIERS - CARDINAL AND ORDINAL NUMBERS
There are two kinds of numbers, cardinal and ordinal. Examples:
CARDINAL ORDINAL
one first
two second
three third
four fourth
twenty-one twenty-first
The following patterns are used to designate items in a series:
(1) Ordinal numbers are used in this pattern:
THE + ORDINAL + NOUN The first book of the series is about verbs.
(2) Cardinal numbers are used in this pattern:
NOUN + CARDINAL Book one of the series is about verbs.
NOTES:
i. Use the with ordinal numbers. ii. Do not use the with cardinal numbers. iii. Be careful to use the correct word order for each pattern.
Rule 18:
MODIFIERS : NOUN ADJECTIVES The first noun (N) in the following pattern is used as an adjective.
All these are language students. N N
NOTES:
a. When nouns are used as adjectives, they do not have plural or possessive forms.
b. Exceptions :The following nouns always end in -s but are singular in number when they are used as names of courses or sciences : Physics, Mathematics etc.
He is an Economics teacher. N N
BUT The current economic situation is extremely uncertain.
Note:
'Economic' is adjective here. 'Economical' means frugal, thrifty. It does not refer to condition.
Exercise - 9
Correct the mistakes relating to the use of adjectives in the following sentences where necessary.
1. I am more wiser than that student.
2. My house is larger than you.
3. The climate of Hyderabad is better than Madras.
4. Many a student is attending the meeting today.
5. He wants little sugar for tea.
6. Pooja is my older sister.
7. It is much fine today.
8. My friend is senior than me by 4 years.
9. Death is preferable than disgrace.
10. Calcutta is a worth-seeing city.
11. My friends both sisters are doctors.
12. The two first chapters of this book are very important.
13. Suvarna is greater than any student in the class.
14. Shakuntala is better than any drama in Sanskrit.
15. His house is further from the station than yours.
16. The later suggestion is better than the former.
17. These flowers smell sweetly.
18. Little learning is a dangerous thing.
19. Her birthday is the most happiest even this year.
20. Usually the rich people hate poor.
21. Go and meet the concerned clerk in the university.
22. Honour is dear to me than life.
23. Little act would have saved the situation.
24. The tiger is the ferocious of all animals in the forest.
25. My knife is the sharpest of the two.
UNIT-IV CORRECT USE OF ADVERBS
An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an
adjective or another adverb in a given sentence.
Examples:
She is reading very fast.
verb adv. She is a very intelligent girl.
adv. adj. The horse runs very guickly adv. adv. (Note: usually the adverbs end with -ly.)
Rules pertaining to use of adverbs :
Rule 1:
In order to make our meaning perfectly clear, an adverb must be placed as near as possible to the word it modifies. She has only three dollars with her.
adv. adj. He only saw her in the library; he did not speak to her.
Note: Other adverbs like only are: just, nearly, hardly, almost and scarcely.
Read the following error examples:
Wrong : We only have four hours to finish this paper.
Right : We have only four hours to finish this paper.
Wrong : She just wants to take one class. Right ; She wants to take just one class.
Wrong : That building nearly costs sixty thousand
rupees. Right : That building costs nearly sixty thousand
rupees.
Rule 2:
POSITION OF ADVERBS The position of adverbs is often determined by shades of meaning, for which rules cannot be given, but some generalisations can be made.
Adverbs of frequency.
always, often, rarely, never, ever, generally, usually,
sometimes, occasionally, etc.
If the verb is in the simple tense form, the adverb is usually placed between the subject and the verb, preferably before the verb it modifies.
He always goes to college on foot.
He often visits U.S.
His brother never drinks liquors.
But, when the verb is some form of 'to be' (is, am,
was, are) the adverb follows the verb:
They are always late.
He is never punctual.
If you are ever in difficulties, please meet me.
If the verb is a compound one, the adverb is usually placed after the auxiliary: I shall never forget his help. He will always teach properly.
In negative sentences the adverb of frequency
follows not
They are not often late.
In interrogative sentences the adverb of frequency follows the subject immediately: Does he often go fishing? Has he ever travelled by air?
At times 'often' may be placed at the end to emphasise it. This is mainly confined to negative statements and questions. He does not see his friend often, as he lives in a remote village,
'Never' is sometimes placed at the beginning to emphasise it. Then the verb and subject are inverted as in a question. I never saw such an accident. Never did I see such an accident. (S - V becomes V - S here)
Rule 3:
USE OF HARD, HARDLY, SCARCE, SCARCELY
(a) Hard as an adverb means 'diligently'. It usually follows the verb.
He works hard to make both ends meet.
(b) Hardly when used as an adverb means scarcely, barely
It conveys a negative meaning.
Hardly (scarcely) had he reached the station,
when the train left.
Note: Hardly and Scarcely are followed by when
not than . No sooner is followed by than not
when or then. (This is very important)
(c) Scarce as an adjective means 'not plentiful', hard to find, not often found. Coal has become scarce in England Scarcely as an adverb is almost synonymous with 'hardly'. I can scarcely hear you They have scarcely enough money to look after their children.
Rule 4:
SPLIT INFINITIVE
The infinitive is to + the simple form of the verb (V).
Do not put an adverb between to and verb.
i. He refused to do the work quickly
to+v Adv.
ii. They have decided to repeat the experiments carefully
to+v adv.
Wrong : He wanted to carefully read the directions Right : He wanted to read the directions carefully
Rule 5:
DANGLING MODIFIER
The subject of the main clause must be the same as the understood subject of the introductory phrase, In other words, the introductory phrase modifies the subject of the main clause. Example:
(i) Looking at his watch. Mr.Viiavkumar got up and left. Introductory Ph. Subject
Who looked at his watch? Mr. Vijaykumar Who got up and left? Mr. Vijaykumar
(ii) While a dancer in Bombay, Nalini injured her leg. Introductory Ph. Subject
Note: Both these sentences are right. In both these sentences, the subject of the introductory phrase and the subject of the main clause are same.
Error examples:
Wrong : When only a baby, my mother took me to
the circus. Right : When only a child, I was taken to the circus
by my mother.
Exercise-10
Correct the following sentences.
1. She was so quiet that hardly he noticed her.
2. My friend only wants to borrow rupees ten thousand.
3. He worked hardly for the examination and got first division.
4. The judge hardly entered the court room than the advocates stood up and greeted him.
5. No sooner did I go to the railway station when the train left.
6. Do not try to completely finish your homework before lunch.
7. He always is at home on Sundays.
8. The teacher wanted to know positively whether or not the students could come to the picnic.
UNIT - V
CORRECT USE OF THE VERB
STRUCTURE OF THE VERB PHRASE
A verb indicates the action done by the subject or
the state of being of the subject.
Examples:
1. He has completed the work (action)
2. Radha is an intelligent student (state)
In every sentence you find a verb phrase (VP). A verb phrase may have a single word or more words. Examples:
1. The Sun rises in the east.
1
2. He has ordered tea for us.
1 2
3. She has been teaching English since 1965.
1 2 3
4. She will have been typing when I meet her at 10 a.m.
1 2 3 4
Main Verb Verbs —
Auxiliary Verb
Simple Present Tense - Sing
Simple Past Tense - Sang Main Verb - _
Basic forms Present Participle - Singing
Past Participle - Sung
AUXILIARY VERBS AND THEIR FORMS
Primary Auxiliaries Modal Auxiliaries
BE be, is, are, am, was, can, might, may,
were, being, been must, will, needn't
HAVE have, has, had, shall, daren't,
having should, ought
DO do, does, did, doing, would, used to,
done could
Note: The Verb Phrase in any sentence is constituted by using only the Main Verb form or one of the basic forms of the Main Verb and the primary auxiliaries or modal auxiliaries or both the primary auxiliaries and the modal auxiliaries. Examples: 1. I teach English. M.V
2. I am teaching English now.
P.A M.V
3. I will have been teaching English.
M.A P.A P.A M.V
Special Note: Every verb phrase has a particular structure acceptable according to standard written English.
The verb phrases in the following sentences are wrong.
1. I will the work 2. I will did the work
3. I going there 4. I can done the work
VERBS - TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE
The verbs which do not require or do not have
objects in the sentence in which they are used are
called intransitive verbs (i.v.).
In the following sentences complements are used,
not objects.
Examples:
This book costs ten rupees
i.v comp. The play lasted an hour
i.v comp. The birds fly in the sky
i.v adv. ph.
The verbs which require or have objects are called
transitive verbs
Example:
The professor gave some assignments
v object
Note: There are a number of verbs which can be used with or without objects, that is, 'transitively' or 'intransitively.'
Here are some examples of verbs used both intransitively and transitively- Intransitive use Transitive use My father is reading. He is reading the
newspaper. The play ended at five. Rain ended the play.
VERB - VOICE
There are two voices -
1. ACTIVE VOICE
2. PASSIVE VOICE
Notice the change in the following sentences.
1. She has done the work (A.V)
The work has been done by her (P.V)
2. These engineers can draw good designs (A.V) Good designs can be drawn by these engineers (P.V)
3. The Principal read the report (A.V)
The report was read by the Principal (P.V)
Note:
(i) Depending on the emphasis we want to lay, we
use a particular voice in a particular context.
Examples:
Some people dug a well to provide water to the
village (A.V)
A well was dug to provide water to the village (P.V)
Here we would prefer to use the second rather than the first sentence, because what we want to refer to is not the action of the Panchayat but the result of the action, namely, a well being provided in order to supply water to the village. Who dug the well is not the main idea in our minds.
(ii) Intransitive verbs do not have passive voice. i.e., we cannot transform a sentence from Active to Passive if the verb is intransitive. For example the sentence "Birds fly in the sky" cannot be transformed into passive voice.
VERB - FORM AND USE OF THE TENSES
There are 12 tense-structures in English.
PRESENT
Simple Present : I teach English.
Present Continuous : I am teaching English.
Present Perfect : I have taught English
Present Perfect . I have been teaching
Continuous ' English.
PAST
Simple Past : I taught English.
Past Continuous : I was teaching
English Past Perfect : I had taught English.
Past Perfect Continuous : I had been teaching
ENGLISH.FUTURE
Simple Future : I will teach English.
Future Continuous : I will be teaching
English. Future Perfect : I will have taught
English. Future Perfect : I will have been
Continuous teaching English.
USES OF TENSES - SOME IMPORTANT RULES:
Simple Present Tense is used to express habitual actions, permanent or verifiable truths or facts (scientific or universal)
a. He goes to church every Sunday.
b. Water boils at 100°c.
c. Calcutta stands on the banks of the Hoogli.
d. The Sun rises in the east.
The Simple Present tense is used to express a planned future action, or a series of such planned actions.
a. We leave Hyderabad at 8:30 p.m. next Tuesday and arrive in New Delhi at 11 a.m. on Thursday.
b. 1. The Present Continuous tense is used to
describe an action that is in progress at the
time of speaking.
The children are playing in the garden now.
The Present Continuous tense is used to describe an action that is in progress and will be continued, but not necessarily going on at the moment of speaking.
a. The college authorities are building a new hostel.
The Present Continuous tense can also express an action that has been arranged to take place in the near future and one's immediate plans.
a. I am meeting the CM tomorrow morning
b. We are going to a movie this evening.
There are a number of verbs which are not normally used in the present continuous tense. These are
a. verbs of perception : see, hear, smell, notice
b. verbs used to express feelings or states of mind: want, desire, wish, refuse, forgive, care, hate, like, admire, love
c. verbs involving the process of thinking:
feel, know, mean, remember, forget, recall, etc.
d. verbs denoting possession: have, own, belong, possess
e. verbs such as:
contain, consist, keep, seems, cost
When some of the verbs listed above are used in the present continuous tense, their meanings change.
1. I see several mistakes in this book.
I am seeing the principal at 3 P.M. (meeting)
2. We hear several rumours about the Minister The judge is hearing about the missing case tomorrow. (conducting the trial).
3. I have a house at Malakpet (taking) L.H. 2.
The following sentences are wrong
1. I am loving that girl. (love ) - correct
2. They are understanding the lesson. (understand )
3. I am slowly understanding you (wrong) have begun to understand you (right)
4. I am having a telephone at my residence. (have ) - correct
Do not use present perfect tense (has or have)
when time is specified (eg. last year, 1994, this
morning, etc) in the sentence.
Examples:
I have seen this film last year (incorrect)
I saw this film last year (correct)
Also note that for and since are commonly used with the present perfect tense. 'For' shows length of time and 'since' shows some point of time in the past as being the starting point of the action or event.
Examples:
1. My friend has lived in Hyderabad for twenty years. (He still lives here)
2. These monuments have been here since 1650 A.D. (still they are here)
The following are some time expressions which go with the simple past and some that go with the present perfect.
Simple Past Tense Present Perfect Tense
yesterday so far
a week ago since
last Tuesday lately
recently
Note the difference in meaning between the two following sentences :
Dr. Mohan lived in Delhi for fifteen years. (in the
past)
Dr. Mohan has lived in Delhi for fifteen years. (still
Dr. Mohan lives in Delhi)
Past Progressive Tense:
1. The past progressive (continuous) tense expresses an action that was in progress at a point of time in the past, having begun before that point and probably continuing after it.
Examples:
a. I was reading the newspaper at 7 a.m. this morning.
b. I was having my breakfast at 9 a.m.
2. The Past Progressive tense expresses an action continuing over a period of time in the past.
Example:
The students in the hostel were listening to the
cricket commentary the whole of yesterday.
3. The past continuous tense describes two or more actions going on at the same time; often the conjunction 'while' is used to connect the clauses.
Example:
While some boys were reading in the library the
others were playing in the play ground.
Past Perfect Tense :
This tense is used when we wish to emphasise the
sequence of the two actions in the past, and when
that earlier action has some relation to the later
action or situation.
Examples:
1. On reaching the school I found that I had forgotten to bring my English textbook.
2. When we reached the theatre, the play had begun already.
3. I had to borrow some money from a friend of mine, since I had lost my purse.
The Future Tense:
There are several ways of expressing future time in
English.
One of the most common ways to express this is to use shall or will with the bare forms of the verb : shall come, will go, etc. But there are other ways of expressing the future : Example:
Our cricket team leaves for Bombay this evening. They play two matches in Bombay. They play one at Poona. They return next Monday.
In these sentences the present simple tense is used to express a series of intended or planned actions in future.
1. The P.M is visiting the city tomorrow
2. The college team is playing a cricket/match with the city team next Sunday.
The Present Continuous tense: The Present Continuous tense is used in these sentences to express a future event. Usually the time is mentioned (tomorrow, next sunday, etc) and it is in the near future. Note that the verbs go and come are not usually used with going to . We don't say, for instance, He is going to go to Bombay tomorrow; we say, He is going to Bombay tomorrow.
Special expressions to indicate future
1. The train is about to leave
2. The President is about to speak
This construction be about to + verb expresses events whose happening is imminent, that is, which are likely to happen in a very short while.
1. I am to be at a meeting at 5 O'clock.
2. There is to be an enquiry into the railway accident.
In these sentences the form be + to + the base form of the verb is used to express a duty or necessity or planned course of action, in the future.
RULES REGARDING THE USE OF VERBS
SUBJECT AND VERB CONCORD (AGREEMENT)
General rule: In English, the verb must agree with its subject in number and person. In other words, the verb must be of the same number and person as the subject.
Note: In the correction of sentences part of many competitive examinations the S - V concord is usually tested.
Rule 1:
When two subjects are joined by 'and', the verb is plural.
My friend and his father often go abroad.
Rule 2:
When two singular nouns joined by and refer to the same person or thing, the verb is singular.
The secretary and treasurer has been arrested.
The District Magistrate and Collector is on leave
today.
Notes: i. Article 'The' article is used only once when the two nouns refer to the same person or thing. ii. If the two nouns refer to different persons or things, article 'The' is used before each noun. In such cases, the verb will be in the plural form.
Example:
The Secretary and the president have been given
warm welcome.
Rule 3:
If two different singular nouns express one idea, the verb should be in the singular form.
Bread and milk is good for breakfast. Rice and curry is my favourite dish. The ebb and flow of tides is now over.
Rule 4:
When two singular subjects are practically synonymous the verb should be in the singular form.
The law and order situation in the state is under
control.
His power and influence is on the decline.
Power and position has no charm for my friend.
Peace and prosperity is the need of the day.
Rule 5:
If two singular subjects (combined by and) are preceded by each or every , the verb should be in the singular.
Every boy and girl was present in the class yesterday.
Rule 6:
When the subjects joined by 'either - or' or' neither -nor' are of different persons, the verb will agree in person and number with the nearest one to it. Also, the plural subject must be placed nearest to the verb. (This is very important)
Either Radha or Rajani has done this mischief. Neither Mohini nor Ragini is beautiful. * Either the Chief Minister or the Cabinet Ministers are responsible for this problem. Neither you nor he is to take up this task. Either you or I am responsible for this mistake.
Rule 7:
If with, together with, as well as, accompanied by etc are used to combine two subjects the verb agrees with the subject mentioned first.
The President of India together with his personal secretaries is invited to this function. The actress, along with her manager and some friends, is invited to the function. Mr. Micheal, accompanied by wife and children is arriving tonight by train.
Note: If the conjunction and is used instead, the
verb would then be plural.
Compare (i) Saritha and Rajitha are our professor's
daughters. (ii) The study of languages and sciences
is very important for your study.
Rule 8:
When 'not only......but also' is used to combine two
subjects, the verb agrees with the subject close to it.
Not only he but all his brothers also were arrested.
Rule 9:
None / No
None can take either a singular or plural verb depending on the noun which follows it;
Structure: none + of the + non-count noun +
singular verb
None of the counterfeit money has been found
Structure: none+ of the + plural count noun +
plural verb
None of the students have finished the exam
yet.
No can take either a singular or plural verb depending on the noun which follows it.
Structure: No + singular noun + singular verb
non-count noun
Example: No example is relevant to this case
Structure: no + plural noun + plural verb Example: No examples are relevant to this case.
Rule 10:
Many words indicating a number of people or animals are singular. The following nouns are usually singular . In some cases they are plural if the sentence indicates that the individual members are acting separately.
congress family group
committee class organisation
team army club
crowd government jury
minority public
Examples of collective nouns:
The committee has met, and it has accepted the
proposal.
The family was happy at the news.
The crowd was wild with excitement.
Congress has initiated a new plan to combat
inflation.
Our team is certain to win the match.
The family living next door often quarrel among
themselves.
Some collective nouns are used in plural: Examples:
1. The committee have arrived by different trains.
2. The family were fighting over inheritance.
Rule 11:
Majority can be singular or plural. If it is alone it is usually singular, if it is followed by a plural noun, it is usually plural.
The majority believes that the country can progress.
V The majority of the lecturers believe that the student
V has not copied in the examination.
Rule 12:
A number of / the number or
Observe the two structures:
(i) a number of + plural noun + plural verb.
(ii) the number of + plural noun + singular verb.
Examples:
(i) A number of students are going to the class
picnic. (ii) The number of days in a week is seven. (iii) The number of residents who have been
residing in this colony is quite small. (iv) A number of the applicants have already been
interviewed.
Rule 13:
Collective nouns indicating time, money, and measurements used as a whole are singular and take a singular verb.
Twenty-five rupees is not such a big amount for him. Two miles is too much for this man to run.
Rule 14:
When a lot of, a great deal of, plenty of, most of,
and some of refer to number, a plural verb is used.
Example:
A lot of people were present in the gallery.
Some of the students were absent.
Note: If these expressions refer to an amount, the
verb is in the singular number.
Examples:
A lot of work has to be completed before we go. A
great deal of work has been finished.
Rule 15:
When the percentage or a part of something is
mentioned with plural meaning the plural verb is
used.
Example:
30% of Indian women are literate.
Three-quarters of the food has been eaten.
(Here the reference is to the food as a whole.)
Rule 16:
'Barracks', headquarters, 'whereabouts' 'alms' etc. take a singular verb, as well as the plural verb. The headquarters of the UNO is/are New York.
Rule 17:
In sports, while referring to the players, the name of the country is followed by plural verb. England have won the World Cup. V
Rule 18:
When the 'enemy' is used in the sense "armed forces" of a nation with which one's country is at war, we have to use the plural verb:
The enemy were forced to retreat.
Exercise- 11
Correct the mistakes relating to the use of verbs in the sentences given below.
1. Measles have broken out in the town.
2. The 'Arabian Nights' are an interesting book.
3. Five miles are not a long distance for me to walk.
4. The cost of all essential commodities have gone up.
5. The construction of these buildings have taken four years.
6. There are a bunch of keys on the table.
7. A pious man and good neighbour have died.
8. Bread and milk are my only food for today.
9. Sanjay as well as his brothers have gone home.
10. The notorious dacoit with his followers have escaped.
UNIT - VI
CORRECT USE OF PREPOSITIONS
A preposition is a word placed before a noun or a pronoun or a noun equivalent and shows some relationship between that and some other word in the sentence.
i. Mohan gave a lecture on patriotism. prep N
ii. The prize is given to her
prep. pr. noun
iii. His objection is to what all vou say . prep. noun eq. (clause)
Note: On certain occasions it is both necessary and correct to end a sentence with a preposition. English is a flexible language and defies pedantic rules of grammar.
Now, look at the following sentences: This is the boy I gave the book to. This is the house that I was born in.
In these sentences the preposition is used at the end of a sentence.
OBJECT OF THE PREPOSITION
The noun or noun-equivalent (pronoun, adverb,
gerund, infinitive, adverbial clause, or any clause
that can be used as the object of the preposition)
before which the preposition is placed is called its
object.
Examples:
The glass is on the table (noun)
I depend on him. (pronoun)
Go away from here. (adverb)
He is fond of playing. (gerund)
She was well till a few days ago. (adverbial phrase)
I shall see it for what it is worth. (adverbial clause)
RULES PERTAINING TO THE USE OF PREPOSITIONS
Rule 1:
A preposition is placed at the end of a sentence in the following ways:
(a) When the relative pronoun is 'that' Example: Here is the pen that you are looking for
(b) If a preposition governs a relative pronoun. Example:
This is the student whom I spoke about
(c) When the relative pronoun is understood Example:
This is the person you spoke to.
(d) If a preposition governs an interrogative pronoun or an interrogative adverb Example:
What are you looking at?
(e) When the preposition is used with the infinitive placed at the end of the sentence. Example:
Do you have a chair to sit on?
(f) Sometimes the object governed by the preposition is placed first
Examples:
This I insist on.
He is known all the world over.
Rule 2:
A preposition can also be used at the beginning of
an interrogative sentence.
Examples:
In which city do you live?
To whom are you referring?
Rule 3:
There are many words which can be used as prepositions or as adverbs. The most important of these are about, above, across, along, before, below, behind, besides, by, down, in, near, off, over, past, round, through, under, up, etc. Examples:
Preposition Adverb
He was here before ten He has done this
before He was behind us She is long way behind
The shop is just round Come round and see the corner me this afternoon.
Rule 4:
There are some words with prepositions which require gerunds after them. Examples:
refrain from hurting abstains from drinking
prevent from working aid at doing
persist in disobeying addicted to gambling
succeed in doing bent upon doing
disqualified from doing averse to playing
knack of getting expert in inventing
prohibit from entering desist from talking
tired of writing capable of teaching
pretext for delaying desirous of going
fond of playing insist on going
Rule 5:
The verbs, which are placed immediately after
prepositions are usually in the gerund form.
Examples:
Manohar insisted on buying a television.
She left the hotel without paying the bill.
Rule 6:
Some words with prepositions can take the gerund
as well as the infinitive.
Examples:
He is afraid of going out alone at night.
He is afraid to go out alone at night.
Rule 7:
Some intransitive verbs become transitive by
placing prepositions after them.
Examples:
laugh at, listen to, depend on / upon, prevail on /
upon etc.
Rule 8:
In and Within
(a) In refers to the end of a period of time usually in the future, e.g. He will return in a month. (at the end of one month)
(b) Within means before the end of a period of time (at any time before the specified period)
He will return within a month. (he may come after two weeks also)
Rule 9:
In and Into
(a) In indicates rest or motion inside anything. Examples:
She is in the garden. (rest, inside)
She is walking in the garden (motion inside)
(b) Into means motion towards the inside of anything
Examples:
I walked into the garden.
Thieves broke into my friend's house yesterday.
Rule 10:
(a) On is used:
(i) in speaking of things at rest. He sat on a big stone
(ii) Before the names of days and dates On Friday, on the 2nd of August, etc.
(iii) To denote support and concern. He lives on his maternal uncle. I wrote books on politics.
(b) Upon is used:
In speaking of things in motion The tiger sprang upon the goat
Rule 11:
BESIDE and BESIDES
Beside means 'by the side of
Example:
The groom sat beside the bride in the marriage.
Besides means in addition to or moreover
Examples:
Besides having a beautiful wife, he has a car.
There are four professors in the department besides
the head of the department.
Rule 12:
BETWEEN and AMONG
Between is used for two persons or things Distribute these sweets between the two children There is a good understanding between him and her.
Among is used for more than two persons or things. I distributed the clothes among those eight beggars.
Rule 13:
BY is used to mean:
(a) according to; from the evidence of By my watch, it is 10.30.
(b) to denote the doer of an action in the passive voice.
The thief was beaten by the policeman.
Rule 14:
Prepositions from, since, for with reference to time From, Since indicate a point of time.
(a) I have not seen her since Monday. I have not seen her from August.
For indicates a length or period of time.
(b) I have not seen her for six months.
Exercise- 12
Correct the error relating to the use of prepositions in each of the following sentences:
1. Sugar sells in ten rupees per kilogram.
2. I congratulate upon her success in the examination.
3. What is the time with your watch?
4. You must travel with a bus to reach in time.
5. Among you and me, he is definitely in the wrong.
6. John divided his property among his two sons.
7. He is suffering with malaria.
8. He has been working since five years.
9. It has been raining from morning.
10. He has been here above eight hours.
UNIT - VII CORRECT USE OF CONJUNCTIONS
A Conjunction is a word which connects words, phrases, clauses or sentences. It also brings about relationship between the elements which are thus joined. There are two types of conjunctions:
(i) Co-ordinate conjunctions
(ii) Subordinate conjunctions
A Co-ordinate Conjunction joins two clauses or sentences of equal rank. Also, it joins two words of equal grammatical rank.
And, but, for, nor, or, but, otherwise, else, also,
either - or, neither - nor etc. are the chief co-ordinate
conjunctions.
Examples:
He went to the hospital and met the doctor
Dr. Rao and Dr. Reddy are the best friends
The co-ordinate conjunctions are of four kinds
1. Cumulative conjunction A conjunction which adds one statement or fact to another is a cumulative conjunction.
Example:
The professor as well as the lecturer has
accepted to conduct the examination next
week.
The following are the cumulative conjunctions:
Not only — but also,
Both — and,
as well as
too, also, moreover etc.
2. Alternative conjunctions: A conjunction of this kind expresses a choice between two alternatives.
Either -— or, neither — nor, otherwise, else,
etc. are alternative conjunctions.
Examples:
She is good neither at games nor at studies.
Work hard, otherwise you will fail.
3. Adversative Conjunctions: An adversative conjunction expresses a contrast between two facts or statements.
Only, however, but, still, yet, whereas,
nevertheless, etc, are adversative conjunctions.
Examples:
She was angry, but she kept quiet.
She hates me, yet I love her.
4. Illative conjunctions: Such a conjunction shows that a statement or fact is proved or inferred from another.
Therefore, hence, so, consequently, for etc., are
illative conjunctions.
Example:
He is honest and amiable, hence he is revered.
5. The Subordinate Conjunctions are the conjunctions that connect the subordinate clauses to the main clauses in sentences.
The adverbial clauses are usually connected to the main clauses by means of the subordinate conjunctions:
The following are some sentences in which important subordinate conjunctions are used. i) The patient had died before the doctor
arrived. ii) We eat so that we may live. iii) He behaved in such a manner that all
disliked him.
Note: There are some words which are used both as conjunctions and as prepositions.
Conjunctions Prepositions
We went home after he We went home after
came to the office the sunset.
I went to bed early, for I I shall do it for him. was tired.
Exercise-13
Correct the errors relating to the use of conjunctions in each of the following sentences.
1. It had been raining.
2. Your action was either just or fair.
3. As I was ill, so I did not go to college.
4. Both of you as well as your brother are at fault.
5. I shall not come unless I am not invited.
6. Unless you have no objection, I shall see you tomorrow.
7. Walk carefully lest you should not fall down.
8. He works hard because he may get first division.
9. I am glad when you have come to discuss the problem frankly.
10. God made the world so man made the town.
UNIT - VIII
CORRECT USE OF ARTICLES
In English there are two types of articles: (i) The Indefinite Articles (ii) The Definite Article
The Indefinite Articles: A and An (Please note that
'An' is a variant of 'A'.) The Definite Article: The
Notes:
1. A or An is used before a singular countable noun.
2. The choice between A and An wholly depends on the pronunciation of the word.
3. In English the 'spelling of a word' is different from the 'pronunciation' of the word'.
4. An is used before the word the pronunciation of which starts with a vowel.
5. There are 44 sounds (each is given a symbol from the International Phonetic Alphabet).
6. Out of the 44 sounds, there are 20 vowels and 24 consonants.
7. Please note that, strictly speaking, A E I O U are not vowels but just letters of the English Alphabet having 26 letters.
8. The indefinite article 'a' is used before
(a) a word beginning with a letter having a consonant sound. e.g. a book, a man, a dinner.
(b) a word that begins with a letter (like O) with the sound like 'wa' e.g. a one-rupee note, a one-eyed man etc.
(c) a word beginning with 'u' or 'eu' giving the consonant of 'yu'.
Examples: a university, a European.
9. The indefinite article 'an' is used before:
(a) a word beginning with a letter like a, e, i, o, u having a vowel sound.
Examples: an apple, an egg, an umbrella, an idiot, etc.
(b) a word beginning with 'h' but the pronunciation starts with a vowel. Examples: an heir, an hour, an honest man, etc.
(c) an abbreviation, the first letter of which is 'M' examples: an M.L.A., an M.P., an M.Com an S.D.O an F.R.C.S., an X-mas gift etc.
SOME IMPORTANT RULES REGARDING THE ARTICLES
Rule 1:
A or An is not used before:
(a) plural nouns: a books, a universities, a dinners etc. (wrong)
(b) uncountable nouns: an advices, an information etc. (wrong)
(c) names of meals: Example:
Let us have dinner (correct)
Let us have a dinner (incorrect)
Note: An indefinite article can be used before
names of meals when these are preceded by
an adjective.
Example:
She gave me a good breakfast at 8 a.m.
A or An is used in the following ways:
Rule 2:
Before the word 'most' when it is used in the sense
of very or much or exceedingly.
Examples:
Sreedhar is a most intelligent student.
This is a most unfortunate event.
Rule 3:
Before a singular countable noun which is used as
an example to represent a class.
Example:
A cow is a useful animal
Note: It must be borne in mind that 'man' or
'woman', when used in a general sense to represent
'mankind' as a whole, never takes an article.
Examples:
Man is mortal.
Woman is man's better half.
Rule 4:
With a noun complement. This includes names of
professions.
Examples:
He is an actor.
She is a good dancer.
It was an accident.
* The words underlined are noun complements. Also called subject complements.
Rule 5:
In certain phrases: a cold, a pain, on an average, make a noise, make an effort, make a mistake, a fever etc.
Rule 6:
With certain numbers : a hundred, a thousand, a million etc.
Rule 7:
'A' can be used before Mr./ Miss/ Mrs. + name
Examples:
a Mr. Bose, a Mrs. Bose, etc.
Note:
A Mr. Bose denotes a person who is called Bose, and implies that he is a stranger to the speaker. Mr. Bose, without 'a', implies that the speaker knows Mr. Bose, or knows of his existence.
Rule 8:
Before a proper noun to make it a common noun.
Examples:
Mohan is a Newton (a great scientist)
Amaresh is a Shakespeare (a great dramatist)
Rule 9:
Before certain uncountable nouns preceded by
nouns + of
Examples:
a piece of advice, a bit of news, a drop of water etc.
Rule 10:
After the words many, rather, such, quite etc. in
certain structures.
Examples:
Many a friend of mine is attending the party.
Such a show cannot be arranged now.
He is rather a fool to take such decisions.
Rule 11:
In certain expressions of quantity
Examples:
a lot of, a couple, a great many, a good deal of, a
good many, a great deal of, a few, a little etc.
THE is used in the following ways
Rule 12:
Before a noun denoting a hospital, temple, school,
college, prison etc. If its purpose or use is not
referred to or say if used not in its primary purpose.
Example:
He has gone to the hospital to visit a friend - Where
he is employed?
Rule 13:
Before an adjective in the superlative degree.
Michael is the tallest boy in the class.
Rule 14:
With nouns indicating what is unique.
Examples:
the sun, the moon, the sky, the earth, the equator
etc.
Rule 15:
Before an abstract noun or a material if it is used
with an adjunct (a qualifying clause)
(or when there is a particular reference to the
material noun)
Example:
The gold you have brought from the U.S.A is of
good quality.
Rule 16:
Before a singular countable noun which picks out
one individual, object, etc. as representative of a
class.
Example:
The tiger is a ferocious animal.
Note:
All the following sentences mean the same thing.
The tiger is a fierce animal
A tiger is a fierce animal
Tigers are fierce animals
Rule 17:
The is used before certain adjectives to give a
plural meaning.
Examples:
rich, poor, dead, sick, healthy, deaf, blind etc.
the rich = rich people
the poor = poor people
Rule 18:
With certain adjectives indicating nationality
Examples:
the Dutch, the Spanish, the Chinese, the Burmese
etc.
Rule 19:
Before 'only' and ordinal numbers, such first,
second, millionth etc.
Examples:
All the students of the first year are invited.
The second example is not correct.
Rule 20:
Before a noun when special emphasis is needed.
Example:
This is the novel I am talking about.
Rule 21:
Before a common noun to give it the meaning of an
abstract noun
Example:
At last the father in him prevailed and excused him.
Rule 22:
Before an adjective in the comparative degree,
when the selection of one out of only two persons,
places or things is meant.
Example:
Nalini is the more beautiful of the two girls in the
class.
Rule 23:
Before the adjective in the superlative degree of
comparison.
Example:
She is the most intelligent of all the candidates in
the exam.
Rule 24:
In special comparatives
Examples:
The more you earn, the more you spend
The more, the better
The higher you go, the cooler you feel.
Rule 25:
Before musical instruments
Example:
Rajani can play the piano very well.
Rule 26:
Before the proper names of certain well-known or
sacred books.
Examples:
the Mahabharat, the Ramayana, the Gita, the Bible,
the Quran
Rule 27:
Before the names of certain countries each of which
is a union of smaller units.
Examples:
the U.S.A. , the U.A.R., the U.S.S.R etc.
Rule 28:
Before north, south etc when these are used as
nouns.
Examples:
the north of India, the Middle East, the West Asia
Rule 29:
Before some proper nouns consisting of adjectives
and noun or noun + of + noun
Examples:
the State Bank Of India, the National Museum
Rule 30:
The + singular noun + clause or phrase can be used
to distinguish one person from another of the same
name.
Examples:
We have two Reddys, which Reddy do you want?
I want the Reddy who signed the letter.
Rule 31:
Before the names of political parties.
Rule 32:
When it is clear from the context that a particular
person, place or thing is meant.
Examples:
I talked to the Principal yesterday.
The students are playing in the garden.
Rule 33:
Before the names of the historical or public buildings
Examples:
the Taj Mahal, the Red Fort, the Rashtrapati
Bhavan, etc.
Rule 34:
Before the names of rivers
Examples:
the Krishna, the Ganga, the Yamuna etc.
Rule 35:
Before the names of seas
Examples:
the Arabian Sea, the Red Sea etc.
Rule 36:
Before the Oceans
Examples:
the Indian Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, etc.
Rule 37:
Before the names of certain chains of Mountains.
Examples:
the Himalayas, the Alps, etc.
Rule 38:
Before the names of deserts Examples: the Sahara, the Thar, etc.
Rule 39:
Before the names of newspapers, magazines, etc.
Examples:
the Hindustan Times, the Statesman, the Deccan
Chronicle, etc.
Rule 40:
Before groups of islands.
Examples:
the Andamans, the West Indies, etc.
Rule 41:
Before the names of certain countries.
Examples:
the Yemen, the Sudan, the Hague, etc.
Rule 42:
Before the dates of months.
Examples:
the 23 October, 1949, the 15th August, 1947, etc.
THE is omitted in the following ways:
Rule 43:
The is omitted before a common noun used in the
widest sense.
Examples:
In general woman is kind-hearted.
Man is not immortal.
Rule 44:
Before material nouns.
Examples:
Gold is a precious metal.
Note: The may be used with a material noun if it is
used with an adjunct which makes it definite.
Example:
The gold we use in India is all imported.
Rule 45:
Usually before proper nouns
Example:
Hyderabad is the capital of Andhra Pradesh.
Rule 46:
Before abstract nouns used in a general sense.
Examples:
Honesty is the best policy
Sincerity pays dividends
Note: If an abstract noun is qualified by an adjective
or an adjectival phrase or clause may have the
article 'the' before it.
Example:
The wisdom of Moses is biblically significant.
Rule 47:
Before the words - father, mother, aunt, uncle etc. in general sense. But if these words are used with reference to the society, nation, religion etc. use of 'the' is compulsory.
Compare the following:
Father is very angry today
Gandhiji, the father of the nation, led a simple and a
truthful life.
Rule 48:
Before predicative nouns denoting a position that is
normally held at one time by one person only.
Examples:
Mr. Kiran was elected chairman of the committee.
He became principal of our college in 1996.
Rule 49:
Before plural nouns which are used to denote a
class.
Examples:
Historians study old monuments for research
purposes.
Camels are useful animals to the Libyans.
Rule 50:
Before plural nouns used in general sense.
Example:
Members are requested to pay their subscriptions in
time.
Rule 51:
Before the names of meals
Examples:
I had lunch at 2.30 p.m.
Let's have dinner at 9.00 p.m.
Note: 'The' can be used when meals are preceded
by an adjective or a clause or phrase particularising
them.
Examples:
The dinner given by our colony association
yesterday was not properly arranged.
What about the wedding dinner tonight?
Rule 52:
Before common nouns used in pairs.
Examples:
He worded day and night to prepare for the C.S.
exam.
Both husband and wife are supposed to take part in
this competition.
Rule 53:
No article is used before the nouns in the following expressions:
to catch fire to send word to give ear
to lose heart to leave home to take offence
at home in hand in debt
by day at sunrise at noon
on demand by land by air
at night on foot at ease
Rule 54:
'The' is not used before the words - bed, hospital,
sea, temple, prison, court, school, university, college
etc. when these places are visited or used for their
primary purpose.
We go to bed to sleep.
We go to hospital as doctors.
We go to university for higher studies.
Note: When these places are visited or used for the
other reasons or purposes 'the' should be used.
Example:
Sometimes I go to the prison to give lectures on
morality, social behaviour etc.
An article a, an or the can be used as follows in some cases:
Rule 55:
When two or more adjectives quality the same
nouns, the article is used alone before the first
adjective only.
Example:
He has a black and white coat.
Rule 56:
When two or more connected nouns refer to the
same person or thing, the article is placed before
the first noun only.
Example:
The chief accounts officer and financial adviser is
supposed to certify your documents.
Rule 57:
In expressing a comparison, if two nouns refer to
the same person or thing, article 'a' is used before
the first noun only.
Example:
He is a better teacher than administrator.
Articles are omitted in the following cases:
Rule 58:
English ==>the English language
the English ==>the English people
Examples:
We speak English at home.
The English and the French have fought various
wars.
Rule 59:
He has gone to ==> He has gone to make
market purchases.
He has gone to the ==> He has gone to the
market place where there is a
market, not necessarily to make purchases.
Rule 60:
To see light ==>to look at light
To see the light ==>to be born
Example:
His proposals for a new international airport never
saw the light of the day.
Rule 61:
The article 'the' is omitted before the nouns in the
phrases below:
He invited me to lunch/tea/dinner.
Note: lunch/tea/dinner are used in general sense.
SECTION III - BASIC PATTERNS
UNIT -1
INDIRECT OBJECTS
Some verbs may be followed by two objects (an indirect object and a direct object). The following shows the patterns used when verbs take two objects.
1. Some verbs like BRING, SEND, OFFER, PASS, TAKE, TELL, READ, WRITE, TEACH, SELL take two objects:
Examples:
My mother often gives me a gift. I.O. D.O. OR My mother often gives a gift to me.
D.O. + to + Obj. (of "to")
2. Some verbs like BUY, FIX, MAKE, GET use the following patterns
Examples:
John usually buys his brother a gift. I.O. D.O.
OR John usually buys a gift for Mary
D.O + for + Obj (of "for")
3. Some verbs like EXPLAIN, ANNOUNCE, DESCRIBE, DELIVER, MENTION, SAY, REPORT, RETURN use only the following pattern:
Examples:
He explained his idea to us
D.O + to + Obj (of "to")
4. Some verbs like ASK, COST, CHARGE, use only the following pattern:
Examples:
I asked Mahesh a Question. I.O. D.O.
ERROR EXAMPLES
A. Wrong: The professor explained me the difficult
points of grammar. Right: The professor explained the difficult points of grammar to me.
B. Wrong: The new suit cost over two thousand
rupees to me. Right: The new suit cost me over two thousand rupees.
UNIT - II EMBEDDED QUESTIONS
An embedded question is a question within a statement or a question.
1. The pattern for an embedded question in a statement is question word + subject + verb or question word/subject (same word) + verb.
I cannot see what the sign says QW+ S + V
They do not know who bought the car. QW/S + V
2. The pattern for an embedded question in a question is the same as for an embedded question in a statement (see rule 1)
Do you know who he is? QW + S + V
3. Do not use do, does, or did as auxiliaries in these patterns.
ERROR EXAMPLES
Wrong: I did not understand what did they mean? Right: I did not understand what they meant.
Wrong: I was surprised when he told me how much
does he study every day. Right: I was surprised when he told me how much
he studies every day.
Wrong: He told me when was he free to do the
work for me. Right: He told me when he was free to do the
work for me.
UNIT - III PARALLELISM
1. Items in a series must be parallel: that is, they must have the same grammatical form.
a) NOUNS He likes music, art, and history.
N N N
b) GERUNDS He likes swimming, dancing, and riding.
V+ING V+ING V+ING
c) ADJECTIVES He is tall, dark, and handsome.
ADJ ADJ ADJ
d) ADJECTIVES They wanted to paint the living
INFIN. room, today a new carpet, and to buy a new sofa. INFIN. INFIN.
e) PAST TENSE The Romans conquered, colonized,
PAST PAST and governed much of the world. PAST
f) PAST PERFECT TENSE
He had finished the game, had taken a shower,
and had eaten lunch by the time I went to his
house.
Note: The auxiliary 'had' may be omitted in the
second and the third verb phrases.
2. The structure joined by and, but, as, or then, or although must have the same grammatical form.
a) AND
He enjoyed the music of Spain and
N PHRASE the sculpture of France N PHRASE
b) BUT
That verb form is not active, but passive ADJ ADJ
c) AS
Taking the bus can be as costly as taking a plane V+ING V+ING
d) OR
He wanted to borrow a car or to rent one while
INFIN. INFIN.
his car was being repaired.
e) THAN
Eating in a restaurant is more fun than cooking V+ING V+ING
at home.
f) ALTHOUGH
Although he liked to eat good food, he did not INFIN. INFIN.
like to pay high prices for it. INFIN.
ERROR EXAMPLES
1. Wrong: Her husband had bought a car, found a
job, and chose a school for the children before she arrived. Right: Her husband had bought a car, found a job, and chosen a school for the children before she arrived.
2. Wrong: That soup should not be served hot, but
at a cold temperature. Right: That soup should not be served hot, but cold.
3. Wrong: Renting an apartment can be as
expensive as to buy a house.
Right: Renting an apartment can be as
expensive as buying a house.
4. Wrong: He is young, intelligent, and has charm. Right: He is young, intelligent, and charming.
5. Wrong: She likes to read, to travel, and
painting. Right: She likes to read, to travel, and to paint.
UNIT - IV QUESTION TAGS
Question Tags are a feature of most languages, but English differs from many of them. Consequently the following error is sometimes found.
Examples:
You are going to the cinema this evening, isn't it?
(Incorrect)
You are going to the cinema this evening, aren't
you? (Correct)
Question tags in English are formed by:
(a) putting an affirmative statement into the negative and repeating the subject in the form of a suitable pronoun.
i.e., if the statement is positive (affirmative) the tag should be negative and if the statement is negative the tag should be positive.
Examples:
Positive Statement Negative Tag
Rajini is a music teacher, isn't she?
Positive Statement Negative Tag
Rajini is not a music teacher, is she?
(b) Use 'do' form (does, did, don't, doesn't, didn't) wherever necessary
Examples:
John sings very well, doesn't he?
John does not sing very well, does he?
(c) the tense of the verb in the tag should be the same as the one in the statement.
Examples:
Mahesh did not accept the job, did he ? (correct)
Mahesh did not accept the job, doesn't he?
(incorrect).
Observe the following: (All the following are correct)
1. Dr. Rao is a professor of English, isn't he?
2. My cousin cannot run fast, can he?
3. She mustn't see the film, must she?
4. We used to live in Nigeria, didn't we?
5. You couldn't swim a mile, could you?
6. Mr. Brown will be our new principal, won't he?
7. I am not a good player, am I?
8. I am a good player, aren't I?
SECTION IV - STYLE
UNIT-I VOICE
In English, the active voice is more common than the passive voice, although the passive voice is acceptable and even preferred at times. It is the context that is to be taken into consideration while deciding upon the type of construction - active or passive. While both types of construction may grammatically be correct, one of them could be more elegant. The following are some of the points of observation.
1. The passive voice is preferred when the actor is unknown or unimportant.
The cure for cancer will probably be discovered by some unknown scientist in a laboratory. ("the cure for cancer" is the main idea in the sentence and not "the unknown scientist")
That church was built in 16th century.
(who built the church is unimportant and hence
not mentioned)
2. The passive voice is often used when discussing history.
The war was fought over gold.
3. Use the active voice when the actor is more important than the action.
We watched the news.
Archimedes discovered the laws of floating
bodies.
4. Avoid using active and passive in the same sentence if possible.
The food was cooked and served. passive passive
Susan cooked the dinner and washed the dishes. active active
5. Use one verb instead of two when possible
Sarita enjoys good food and music.
(Sarita enjoys good food and music is also
enjoyed by her.)
ERROR EXAMPLES
In the following examples we cannot say that the first sentence is absolutely wrong. In certain contexts it may even be preferred. However, generally speaking, the corrected sentence (the second sentence) is preferrable. We are calling the first sentence AWKWARD and the second sentence BETTER.
1. AWKWARD: Ice cream was eaten at the
party by the children. BETTER: The children ate ice cream at
the party.
2. AWKWARD: Some people painted pictures
of animals on ancient cave walls. BETTER: Pictures of animals were
painted on ancient cave walls.
3. AWKWARD: Henry likes swimming and
golfing is also liked by him BETTER: Henry likes swimming and
golfing.
UNIT - II WORDINESS
A general rule in English might be that 'shorter is better'. That is when the same idea can be expressed directly in fewer words, choose the shorter version. There are several ways to do this. In the following examples, the sentence given within the brackets expresses the same idea in a "wordier" manner.
1. Avoid unnecessary relative clauses where an adjective, participal phrase, prepositional phrase, or appositive is enough.
i. The young girl waiting by the door would
like to see you.
(Note: The young girl who is waiting by the
door would like to see you.) ii. Hawaii, the fiftieth state of the U.S.A., is a
favourite vacation spot.
(Note: Hawaii, which is the fiftieth state, is a
favourite vacation spot.)
2. Be as direct as possible.
i. It was an important discovery.
(Note: It was a discovery of great
importance) ii. She did research on enzymes from 1950 to
1964.
iii. He walked down the stairs quickly.
(Note: He walked down the stairs in a quick manner.)
ERROR EXAMPLES
In the following examples the second sentence is preferred to the first sentence.
WEAK: The examination was finished by all
the students within the allocated time.
PREFERRED: All the students finished the examination in time.
WEAK: The committee discussed the
problem for a long time without being able to come to the point where a decision could be reached.
PREFERRED: The committee discussed the problem for a long time without reaching a decision.
UNIT - III
DICTION
(Words often confused)
Diction is the choice of words. In English there are many words which are usually confused. Some words have similar meanings, but cannot be used interchangeably; that is, a choice must be made according to the grammatical situation. The following are some pairs of words which are often confused in their usage.
1. Between/Among
Between is used with two persons or things. Among is used for three or more persons or things.
I cannot decide between these two courses of study. He was standing among several students.
2. In/Into
In is used with non-motion verbs. Into is used with verbs of motion.
He is waiting in the kitchen. He ran into the kitchen.
3. Lie/Lay
Lie cannot taken an object. Lie tells what a person or thing does for himself or by itself. The principal forms of lie are
lie (simple present tense form) John lies on his bed for a few minutes after lunch every day.
lay (simple past tense form) Sunita lay on the sofa all yesterday afternoon.
lain (past participle form) The watch had lain unnoticed for several days before I found it
yesterday. lying (present participle form) A man was lying injured in the street after the accident.
Lay must have an object. Lay tells what a person or thing does for someone or something else. The principal forms of lay are:
lay (simple present tense form) You should lay the tiles in the hall very evenly.
obj. laid (simple past tense form) This hen laid two eggs yesterday.
obj. laid (past participle form) That hen has laid six eggs this week.
obj. laying (present participle) The workers are laying the carpet now in the hall.
obj.
4. Rise/Raise
Rise cannot take an object. It is an intransitive verb. (like lie) Rise tells what someone or something does for himself or by itself. The principal forms of rise are:
rise (simple present tense form) The temperature rises sharply in the afternoon.
rose (simple past tense form) The sun rose at seven yesterday.
risen (past participle form) Prices of essential commodities have risen a great deal lately.
rising (present participle form) The baby's temperature is rising hour by hour.
Raise must have an object It is a transitive verb. Raise tells what someone or something does for someone or something else. The principal forms of raise are:
raise (simple present tense form) Please raise the beam a little high.
obj. raised (simple past tense form) The workers raised the beam to the required level.
raised (past participle form) The researcher has raised the temperature of the liquid in the jar.
raising (present participle form) The new theory is raising many interesting questions.
5. Hanged/Hung
Hanged and hung are both correct past participle forms of the verb hang. But:
Hanged refers to executions (killings) of persons. The murderer was hanged by the neck until dead. person Hung refers to things.
The picture was hung over the fireplace. Thing
6. Advice : (Noun) The teacher's advice was accepted by the students. Advise : (Verb) The doctor advised me to take nutritious food.
7. Adapt : (make suitable) Novels are adapted for the stage. Adopt : (take a child as one's own) He adopted for the stage.
8. Allusion : (reference) Teachers explain complicated ideas by giving allusions. Illusion : (false notion) I have not any illusions about his ability.
9. Amiable : (pleasant and good-tempered) Radha is quite amiable to me.
Amicable : (friendly) The dispute is quite serious and therefore cannot be settled
amicably.
10. Apposite : (Relevant) His speech was apposite to the occasion. Opposite : (contrary) . Heavy is the opposite of light.
11. Beside : (by the side of, close) His mother sat beside him. Besides : (in addition to) Is anyone else coming besides you,?
12. Childish : (silly) I don't like his childish behaviour.
Childlike : (innocent) Gandhiji always put on a childlike smile on his lips.
13. Confidant : (person with whom one Nehruji was a confidant of Gandhiji in political matters.
trusts with secrets) Confident : (to be sure) I am confident of my success in the examination.
14. Continual : (very frequent) He had continual arguments with his wife. Continuous : (going on without a break) There was continuous rain yesterday.
15. Deny : (ascertain that something The minister denied the allegation that he had taken bribe.
is wrong) Refuse : (decline to take something He refused the money given as bribe.
that is offered or to do something that one is asked to do)
16. Historic : (famous or important in history) Our struggle for freedom is historic as many a leader
sacrificed his life. Historical : (pertaining to history) Our professor is engaged in historical research related to
pyramids.
17. Ingenious : (clever at organising) As he is very ingenious he can invent many more scientific
marvels. Ingenuous : (artless, frank) Cordelia's love for her father was ingenuous.
18. Luxurious : (having luxuries) Rich people live luxurious life
Luxuriant : (rich in growth) There is a luxuriant growth of vegetation on the farm.
19. Verbal : (relating to words) Man alone is capable of verbal communication. Verbose : (wordy) During the Victorian era, writers made use of verbose style
in their works.
20. Disinterested : (free from bias or prejudice, freedom from personal or selfish motives) Uninterested : (lacking in interest) A judge must be disinterested in a case, but he should not
be uninterested.
21. Prophecy : (Prediction) Noun Prophesy : (to predict) Verb
Explanatory Notes for Select Exercises
Exercise - 7
1. "Advice" is an uncountable noun; so many advices is (x) Much, a lot of, or plenty of, are used with uncountables.
Answer: a lot of advice
2. Many informations (x) information - uncountable noun
Hence a lot of information (or) much information,
3. a summon (x) Summon is a verb - to call Summons is a noun - Magisterial orders. It is a singular noun
The Magistrate has issued summons ( correct ).........................................................................
4. hairs (x)
Should not be used in plural number. Answer: My hair has turned grey. Hairs should be used only when counted Separately, but not when in a bunch.
5. furnitures (x)
It is used as a singular noun.
Hence answer: Our office has purchased new
furniture.........
6. troubles - maker (x)
"One of the" takes a plural noun and singular verb.
.-. Answer: One of the trouble - makers........
The subject here is 'one', which is always singular. The sentence means 'one among many'. So trouble makers.
7. thiefs (x)
plural of thief is thieves Answer: Four thieves...........
8. machineries is a wrong usage. (machinery: machines collectively) Answer: latest machinery.
9. many mischiefs (x)
Many acts of mischief (correct ) or A lot of mischief (correct )
10. order (x)
(order: The way in which people or things are
arranged)
(orders: instructions)
The Magistrate has passed orders.......
11. Scissor (x)
Names of instruments with two identical parts are always used as plural. Answer: This scissors................ 12. Cannon: a large, heavy piece of artillery (plural form is cannon or cannons) Hence the sentence is correct.
13. aim (x)
The beggar is begging for alms (correct) ("alms" used as a plural noun).
14. luggages (x)
He has lost all his luggage........(correct).
(luggage is used as a singular noun.)
15. The given sentence is correct.
(Note: dispose is followed by the preposition 'of and not 'off')
16. pain (x)
"pain" means suffering.
"pains" mean care.
In the statement; she took great pains.....(correct)
17. The given sentence is correct because "innings" is used as a singular as well as a plural noun.
18. Sceneries (x)
Scenery is always used as a singular noun. Hence the answer is : These scenes of Kashmir.....(correct)
19. brother-in-laws (x)
The plural form of brother-in-law is brothers-in-law. Hence my brothers-in-law........(correct)
20. These golds (x) This gold...........(correct)
Gold is 'material' noun so uncountable. Hence singular.
Exercise - 8
1. Between you and I (x)
Rule : When a pronoun is connected by a conjunction (and, or) with some other word in objective case, it must also be in objective case.
Hence answer: "Between you and me........."
[Note: "The secretary" is the subject here].
2. "do your duty........" (x)
one is an indefinite pronoun. The pronoun following 'one' should be one's (not his/her) Ans: one should do one's duty........ (correct )
3. Like you and he (x)
Follows the same rule as in question 1.
Hence Ans: Good students like You and him......(correct)
4. You, he and I (x) - wrong ordering of words. While expressing a negative idea or guilt, First person - first
Second person - second and
Third person - third
Ans I, you and he...........(correct )
5. Only You and him (x) 'You' is in subjective case.
A pronoun in subjective case, when connected with another pronoun by a conjunction (and, or), the second pronoun also must be in subjective case. Hence only you and he.............(correct )
6. If I were him..........(x)
"If I were ............" states impossible condition, the
pronoun 'I' is in subjective case hence it should be followed by the subjective case of the pronoun. If I were he........(correct )
7. Everyone announced one's.........(x)
Everyone ~ indefinite pronoun
"Everyone" is followed by the pronoun "his".
Everyone announced his............
8. She helped everyone of those boys in doing their work (x) "everyone of the boys" should be followed by the pronoun "his"
Hence answer:.........is doing his work.
9. Every teacher and every student..........their duty (x)
[teacher and student are common genders]. Hence answer: Every teacher and every student ........his or her duty.
10. Neither of the boys......have.............their records.
"Neither of the" is always followed by a singular verb and singular pronoun.
Hence answer: Neither of the boys.......has.........his
record.
11. availed of (x)
The verb "avail" always takes a "self" pronoun and
preposition 'of.
Hence she availed herself of.............
12. one another (x)
"one another" and "each other" are reciprocal pronouns "one another" refers to three or more whereas 'each other' refers to two persons or things. Hence answer: Those two companies always help each other (correct )
13. "one another" (x)
answer: each other; follows the same rule mentioned in the previous statement.
14.............enjoy during holidays (x)
enjoy takes a reflexive (self) pronoun as the object
because it is a transitive verb.
Dear students, enjoy yourselves........(correct )
15. Committee is used as a plural noun here, since each one has a different opinion hence the pronoun following it also should be in plural.
The committee were divided in their.........(correct )
16. The team,.............Its both (x) "team" is a collection
noun, when the reference is to both", every individual is taken separately. So, the correct sentence is the team.....their both (correct )
17. My opinion is the same as your (x)
My opinion is the same as yours (possessive case of the pronoun)
18...............only you and she (x)
'You' is in objective case.
Hence the second pronoun also must be in objective
case (her)
Refer to the rule stated in question (1).
Ans: We were told to let.......you and her enter.
19. which (x)
'who' is he right word to be used, because here the reference is to a person.
20. His problems are the same as my (x) His problems the same as mine (correct) (possessive case of)
Exercise - 9
1. more wiser (x)
usage of dual comparatives is wrong. Answer: I am wiser than........(correct )
2...............larger than you (x)
The comparison should be between two similar things Answer: My house is larger than yours (correct ) (Yours --> Your house)
3................is better than Madras (x)
The comparison is between the climate of two places. Hence it is correct to say: The climate of Hyderabad is better than that of Madras. (correct )
4. The given sentence is correct. Many a + Singular noun + Singular verb is the correct structure.
5. little sugar (x) Little - Not at all. a little - some
('Little' is used for uncountable nouns) A little sugar (correct )
6. Older (x)
Older is used only when we compare people belonging to different families. Pooja is my elder sister (correct )
7. much fine (x) very fine (correct )
'much' is generally used in a negative sense.
8. Senior than (x)
The comparative adjectives which end in 'or' are
always followed by 'to'.
My friend is senior to me by 4 years. (correct)
9. Preferable than (x) Preferable is followed by 'to'
Answer: Death is preferable to disgrace.
10. Worth-seeing city (x) City worth-seeing (correct )
The adjective "worth-seeing" qualifies the noun "city".
11. Both sisters are doctors (x)
Both of my friend's sisters are doctors. (correct )
12. The two first........(x)
Answer: The first two chapters.........(correct )
13. Greater than any student (x)
Suvarna is to be excluded from the students with whom she is being compared. Hence the correct sentence is Suvarna is greater than any other student. ( correct)
14. better than any drama (x)
The rule followed is the same as in the previous
sentence.
Further, if Shakuntala is the name of a drama or a
woman is not clear, in which case, it becomes wrong
comparison.
15. is further from (x)
further is used to mean "additional".
farther is used to express distance.
Hence the right sentence is, his house is
farther....(correct )
16. Later suggestion (x)
Later refers to time, while latter refers to position. Hence later suggestion is erroneous in this context. The latter suggestion........(correct )
17. Smell sweetly (x) Smell sweet (correct )
18. Little learning (x) A little learning (correct )
(Rule is the same as the rule mentioned in Q.5)
19. the most happiest.........(x)
Dual superlatives should not be used. The right sentence is..........."the happiest"
20. The rich people hate poor (x) the rich hate the poor.
the rich indicates —> rich people the poor indicates --> poor people
21. Concerned clerk (x)
The usage is wrong. It conveys the meaning worried
clerk.
The appropriate answer clerk concerned..........................................................................(correct )
22. dear to me than.........(x)
dearer to me than (correct )
23. Little act..........(x)
A little act..............(correct )
(Refer to Q.5 for the rule)
24. the ferocious of all animals.......(x)
The correct structure is: the most ferocious of all animals (correct )
When "of all" or "of any other" are used in the sentence, the adjective is in its superlative.
25. the sharpest of the two (x)
Rule: When selection of one of the two persons or things of the same kind is meant the comparative degree is preceded by "the" and followed by 'of.
Exercise -10
1. The given sentence is correct.
2. "Only wants' (x)
Rule: An adverb must be placed as near as possible
to the word it modifies.
Here 'only' modifies rupees ten thousand.
3. Worked hardly (x)
"Hardly" conveys a negative meaning. Worked hardly --> did not work at all. Hence worked hard (correct )
4. hardly entered..........than (x)
"Hardly" is always followed by "when" .........hardly entered..........when...........
5. No sooner did I.........when the train left (x)
The expression
"No sooner did is" always followed by than.
The answer is: No sooner did I......than the train left. (correct )
6. Completely finish your homework before lunch. (x)
.....finish your homework completely before lunch (correct )
Adverb should follow verb and when object is present, adverb should follow that.
7. He always is......(x)
He is always...........(correct )
Rule: The adverb should be placed after the verb in the sentence.
8. The given sentence is correct.
Exercise -11
1. Measles have (x)
The names of diseases take singular verbs. Measles has (correct )
2. 'Arabian Nights' are (x)
'Arabian Nights' is the title of a book hence a singular verb should be used. 'Arabian Nights' is...........(correct )
3. Five miles are (x)
When a plural noun denotes some specific quantity taken as a whole, it takes a singular verb. Five miles is (correct )
4. The cost of all essential commodities have......(x)
Rule: The error of proximity. The verb must agree with the actual subject of the sentence.
'Cost' is the subject in the sentence (singular) Hence the verb it takes is also singular. The cost of all essential commodities has.
5. The construction of these buildings have taken......(x)
The subject of the sentence is "the construction". It is singular. Hence it takes a singular verb.
The construction of the buildings has taken.............................................................................(correct)
6. These are a bunch of keys (x) bunch of keys - collective noun. Hence it takes a singular verb.
- This is a bunch of keys..........(correct )
7. A pious man and good neighbour have died (x) Rule:
When two nouns are joined by 'and' and they refer to the same person or thing, the verb is singular. A pious man and good neighbour has died (correct )
8. Bread and milk are (x)
"Bread and milk" is treated as singular noun, hence takes a singular verb. Bread and milk is (correct)
9. Sanjay as well as his brothers have gone home (x) Rule: When the subject of the sentence consists of two nouns joined with "as well as", then the verb agrees with the first subject.
Sanjay as well as his brother has gone.......(correct )
10.............with his followers have escaped.
Rule: When the subject of the sentence consists of two nouns joined with "with", the verb agrees with the first subject. .........with his followers has escaped.
Exercise- 12
1. Sugar sells in (x) Sugar sells at (correct )
2. Congratulate upon (x) Congratulate on (correct )
3. time with (x) time by (correct )
4. travel with a bus (x) travel by bus (correct )
5. Among you and me (x)
When two persons or things are referred to, we use
between.
Between you and me (correct)
6. among his two sons (x) between his two sons (correct)
7. suffering with (x) suffering from (correct)
8. working since five years (x) Since indicates a point of time. For indicates a period of time. Working for five years. (correct)
9. from morning (x) since morning (correct)
10. above eight years (x) for eight years(correct )
Exercise- 13
1...........raining as he left the house (x)
.....raining when he left the house (correct)
2. Your action was either just or fair (x) Neither just nor fair (correct )
3. As I was ill, so I did not go to college (x)
'So' should not be used when the sentence begins
with 'As'.
As I was ill, I did not go to college.
4. Both of you as well as.............(x)
"Both" takes 'and'; Hence the correct sentence is Both you and your brother are at fault.
5. I shall not come .... I am not invited (x) "Unless" means - "If not"
'If does not take another negative word. I shall not come unless.....I am invited (correct )
6. Unless you have no objection, I shall see you tomorrow (x)
Unless you have any objection, I shall see you
tomorrow (correct)
Rule: Same as in 5th sentence.
7...........lest you should not fall (x)
"lest" means "in order that.....not"
"lest" always takes "should" with it. .........lest you should fall.
8. He works hard because.......(x)
He works hard so that.......(correct )
9. I am glad when.........(x)
I am glad that............(correct)
10. So(x)
and (correct )

JNTU ONLINE EXAMINATIONS [Mid 2 - awp]

2008-10-28T18:18:00.000-07:00

The length of subsequent directors of yagi - uda antenna reduces progressively by [01D01]
1. 2.5 %
2. 13 %
3. 10 %
4. 15 %
The distance between reflector & driven element in yagi - uda antenna is [01M01]
Spacing between director and direcor of yagi uda antenna is [01M02]
The length of reflector of yagi - uda antenna is [01S01]
1. 0.48 λ
2. 0.28 λ
3. 0.18 λ
4. 0.3λ
The driven element in yagi-uda antenna is [01S02]
1. folded dipole
2. reflector
3. lens
4. horn
The length of driven element of yagi -uda antenna in meters is [01S03]
The length of reflector of yagi -uda antenna in meters is [01S04]
The length of first director of yagi -uda antenna in meters is [01S05]
Spacing between reflector and driven element of yagi Uda antenna is [01S06]
Spacing between director and driven element of yagi uda antenna is [01S07]
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ polarization results in more signal strength [02D01]
1. horizontal
2. vertical
3. left circular
4. right circular
The diameter of elements in yagi Uda antenna is [02M01]
1. 1 to 1.2 cm
2. 2 to 10 cm
3. 3 to 5 cm
4. 10 to 20 cm
Less reflection & reduced ghost images possible with _ _ _ _ polarized yagi uda [02M02]
1. horizontal
2. vertical
3. left circular
4. right circular
The adverse effect of closer radiators in yagi uda array is [02S01]
1. lowering of input impedance of array
2. increasing of input impedance of array
3. lowering of output impedance of array
4. constant input impedance of array
For maximum pickup, the receiving yagi uda antenna is mounted [02S02]
1. horizontally
2. vertically
3. 30⁰ inclined
4. 60⁰ inclined
A hollow conductor in yagi uda antenna is preferred because of [02S03]
1. skin effect
2. miller effect
3. fermat effect
4. debye effect
In fringe area installation, _ _ _ _ _ _ _ used along with yagi uda antenna to improve reception [02S04]
1. booster amplifier
2. buck amplifier
3. all pass filter
4. operation amplifier
The gain of yagi uda six element antenna for operation at 500 MHz is [02S05]
1. 11dBi
2. 20dBi
3. 100dBi
4. 5dBi
The length of reflector element of yagi uda six element antenna for operation at 500 MHz is [02S06]
1. 28.8 cm
2. 40 cm
3. 100 cm
4. 10 .8cm
For 5 element yogi Uda (UHF & VHF TV channels) reflector length L_R is [02S07]
1. 0.15 λ
2. λ
3. 0.1λ
4. 2λ
The field pattern in the horizontal plane for corner reflector at a distance r from antenna is [03M01]
If the feed to vertex distance d is made equal to side length L in reflector then the aperture width is [03M02]
1. 1.414 L
2. 2L
3. 1.6L
4. 1.334L
A corner reflector without an exciting antenna can be used as [03S01]
1. passive reflector
2. active reflector
3. lens
4. dipole
The corner angle for passive reflector is [03S02]
1. 90⁰
2. 50⁰
3. 10⁰
4. 80⁰
In grid type of reflector the spacing between conductors is [03S03]
The height of conductors( for /2 driven element antenna) in grid type of reflector is [03S04]
Compared to isolated /2 antenna, corner reflector antenna power gain will be _ _ _ _ times higher [03S05]
1. 10 to 20
2. 30 to 50
3. 20 to 60
4. 40 to 50
One of the following uses corner reflector antenna [03S06]
1. point to point communication
2. television
3. radio astronomy
4. internet
If corner angle is 90⁰ then range of corner to dipole spacing is [03S07]
The relative field pattern E in the plane of the driven λ /2 element of a square corner reflector is [04D01]
The normalized field pattern E( Ø ) for paraboloid with uniformly illuminated aperture is given by [04D02]
A square corner reflector has a spacing of λ /4 between the driven /2 element and the corner. The directivity is [04M01]
1. 12.8 dBi
2. 15.8 dBi
3. 121.8 dBi
4. 19.8 dBi
If corner angle is 180⁰ then range of corner to dipole spacing is [04S01]
A square corner reflector has a driven λ/2 element. The distance between the driven element and corner is λ /2 . The terminal impedance of driven element is [04S02]
1. 125 ohm
2. 150 ohm
3. 100 ohm
4. 200 ohm
A square corner reflector has a driven /2 element. The distance between the driven element and corner is /2 . The half power beam width in θ is [04S03]
1. 60⁰
2. 90⁰
3. 45⁰
4. 120⁰
A square corner reflector has a driven λ /2 element. The distance between the driven element and corner is λ /2 . The half power beam width in Ø is [04S04]
1. 42⁰
2. 50⁰
3. 45⁰
4. 30⁰
A square corner reflector has a driven λ/ 2 element. The distance between the driven element and corner is λ /2 Directivity from impedance of driven & image dipoles is ` [04S05]
1. 11.9 dBi
2. 20.9 dBi
3. 30.9 dBi
4. 3 dBi
A square corner reflector has a driven λ /2 element. The distance between the driven element and corner is λ /2 Directivity from HPBWs is [04S06]
1. 11.4 dBi
2. 20.4 dBi
3. 13.4 dBi
4. 15.3 dBi
For large circular apertures, the beam width between first nulls is [04S07]
The directivity D of a large uniformly illuminated circular aperture is [05D01]
The field intensity ratio in the aperture plane for parabolic reflector is [05M01]
4. 1
The beam width between half power points for a large circular aperture is [05S01]
The F/D for parabolic reflector is [05S02]
1. 0.25 to 0.5
2. 0.5 to 5
3. 5 to 10
4. 4 to 8
The distance from any point P on a parabolic curve to a fixed point F is called [05S03]
1. focus
2. vertex
3. feed point
4. cassegrain
A parabolic reflector have a [05S04]
1. directional feed
2. offset feed
3. vertex feed
4. isotropic feed
To make the field completely uniform across the aperture would require a feed pattern with [05S05]
1. inverse taper
2. exponential taper
3. uniform taper
4. non uniform taper
The loss in aperture due to feed antenna blockage avoided by using [05S06]
1. offset feed
2. directional feed
3. Horn feed
4. Dipolefeed
The flared out wave guide is also known as [05S07]
1. Horn antenna
2. Yagi-uda antenna
3. dipole
4. paraboloid
For optimum horn antenna, optimum length ,L is [06D01]
If δ = 0.2 , length L = 62.5 , then the pyramidal horn antenna flare angle in E- plane is [06D02]
1. 9.1⁰
2. 1⁰
3. 5⁰
4. 6⁰
For pyramidal horn directivity,D is [06M01]
Beam width between first nulls for optimum E-plane rectangular Horn is [06M02]
If a and b are mouth dimensions in Z & Y directions L is horn length from mouth to apex then `a` is [06S01]
For optimum Horn antenna , optimum δ is [06S02]
If = 0.2 and E plane aperture a_E = 10 λ , then length L for pyramidal horn is [06S03]
If E-plane aperture of pyramidal antenna is aE = 10 λ , then HPBW(E-plane) [06S04]
1. 5.6⁰
2. 2⁰
3. 10⁰
4. 8⁰
If H plane aperture of pyramidal antenna is a_H = 13.7 λ , then HPBW(H-plane) [06S05]
1. 4.9⁰
2. 10⁰
3. 6⁰
4. 2⁰
Beam width between first nulls for optimum H- plane rectangular horn is [06S06]
For pyramidal horn antenna, if h is height in E -plane & w is width in H-plane, the power gain G_p is [07D01]
If Δ A is elemental area , E is magnitude of radiated field generated by Δ A , d is the distance to Δ A , θ is angle with respect to an axis that is perpendicular to mouth of parabolic antenna then strength of electric field at Δ A is [07D02]
Beam width between half power points for optimum H-plane rectangular horn is [07M01]
Typical value of δ for H-plane horn antenna is [07M02]
1. 0.4
2. 0.3
3. 0.1
4. 1
If a and b are mouth dimensions in Z & Y directions L is horn length from mouth to apex. then half power beam widths in degrees in H plane is [07M03]
Beam width between half power points for optimum E-plane rectangular horn is [07S01]
If a and b are mouth dimensions in Z & Y directions L is horn length from mouth to apex. Then `b` is [07S02]
1. 0.81 a
2. 0.98a
3. 2a
4. 0.5a
If a and b are mouth dimensions in Z & Y directions L is horn length from mouth to apex .then gain is [07S03]
If a and b are mouth dimensions in Z & Y directions, L is horn length from mouth to apex. then half power beam widths in degrees in E plane is [07S04]
the field across the mouth of horn antenna is [07S05]
1. section of spherical wave front
2. elliptical wave front
3. triangular wave front
4. rectangular wave front
According to fermat`s principle, R/λ ₀ is equal to [08D01]
Delay type lens antennas regarded basically as [08D02]
1. end fire antennas with poly rod
2. broadside antennas with poly rod
3. end fire antennas with dipole
4. broadside antennas with dipole
Many element yagi uda antenna is a [08M01]
1. rudimentary lens
2. dielectric lens
3. director
4. poly rod
One of the following material is used for constructing dielectric lens [08M02]
1. Lucite
2. Paraffin
3. Teflon
4. Wax
If the flare angles of horn are too large the field across the mouth considered to be [08S01]
1. not equi phase field
2. equi phase field
3. rectangular field
4. triangular field
One of the following applied to delay lenses antennas [08S02]
1. electrical path length is increased by lens medium
2. electrical path length is decreased exponentially by lens medium
3. electrical path length is unaltered by lens medium
4. electrical path length is decreased linearly by lens medium
One of the following applied to fast lenses antennas [08S03]
1. electrical path length is increased exponentially by lens medium
2. electrical path length is decreased by lens medium
3. electrical path length is unaltered by lens medium
4. electrical path length is increased linearly by lens medium
One of the following is a delay type lens antenna [08S04]
1. Dielectric lens
2. E plane metal plate lens
3. EH metal plate
4. Horn
One of the following is a delay type lens antenna [08S05]
1. H plane metal lens
2. E plane metal plate lens
3. EH metal plate
4. Horn
One of the following material is used for constructing dielectric lens [08S06]
1. Polystyrene
2. Paraffin
3. Teflon
4. Wax
For a cylindrical lens field ratio is [09D01]
The thickness Z of a zone step in zoned lens is [09M01]
For non magnetic materials, index of refraction n is [09M02]
One of the following is valid according to Fermat's principle [09S01]
1. all paths from source to plane surface are of equal electrical lengths
2. all paths from source to plane surface are of unequal electrical lengths
3. all paths from source to load surface are of equal electrical lengths
4. some paths from source to plane surface are of equal electrical lengths
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ illumination of aperture suppresses minor lobes in lens antennas [09S02]
1. taper
2. Uniform
3. random
4. zero
To avoid resonance effect in artificial dielectric lens antennas the size of metal particles should be [09S03]
1. small compared to design wave length
2. 10 times larger compared to design wave length
3. 20 times larger compared to design wave length
4. equal to design wave length
The maximum particle dimension( parallel to electric field) in artificial dielectric lens antennas is [09S04]
1. less than /4
2. equal to
3. greater than /2
4. 2
To avoid diffraction effects the spacing between the particle in artificial dielectric lens antennas is [09S05]
1. less than
2. equal to
3. greater than
4. 20
Polarization of artificial dielectric in lens antenna is [09S06]
1. Nql
2. nq/l
3. nq/l²
4. Nl/q
The effective relative permittivity of an artificial dielectric of conductive spheres in _r is [09S07]
1. 1+4 prod Na³
2. 1-4 prod Na³
3. 1+4 prod Na⁴
4. 1-4 prod Na²
The effective index of refraction of an artificial dielectric of conducting spheres is [10D01]
The equation for the contour of the zoned lens is [10D02]
The effective dielectric constant of artificial dielectric medium in lens antenna is [10M01]
The effective relative permeability of an artificial dielectric of conducting spheres is [10M02]
The disadvantage of E plane metal plate lens is [10S01]
1. frequency sensitive
2. frequency independent
3. phase sensitive
4. phase independent
The disadvantage of H plane metal plate lens is [10S02]
1. unsymmetrical aperture illumination in E plane
2. symmetrical aperture illumination in E plane
3. unsymmetrical aperture illumination in H plane
4. symmetrical aperture illumination in H plane
According to MUELLER & TYRRELL, the directivity of poly rod antenna is [10S03]
According to MUELLER & TYRRELL, the HPBW of poly rod antenna is [10S04]
A properly designed lens produces [10S05]
1. a plane wave front
2. spherical wave front
3. elliptical wave front
4. non uniform plane wave front
The conducting strips in lens antenna are [10S06]
1. parallel to electrical field
2. perpendicular to electrical field
3. inclined to electrical field
4. perpendicular to magnetic field
The efficiency of power transfer between a generator and load is [11D01]
According to FRIIS transmission formula, power received is [11D02]
The refractive index of LUNEBURG lens is [11M01]
The gain of antenna under test (AUT) is [11M02]
With radar technique gain of antenna under test (AUT) is [11M03]
Total gain of antenna under test (AUT) interms of gain of AUT at horizontal polarization G_H & vertical polarization G_v is [11S01]
The focusing action of lens antenna is [11S02]
1. sensitive to frequency
2. independent of frequency
3. insensitive to phase
4. insensitive to frequency and phase
The phase velocity in lens antenna depends on [11S03]
1. frequency
2. phase
3. delay
4. square of frequency
In antenna parameter measurements distance between primary and secondary antenna should be [11S04]
If r is distance between primary (transmitter) and secondary (receiver) antenna , then r is [11S05]
As per rayleigh criterion the roughness is defined as [12D01]
The attenuation function F is [12M01]
If the surface is rough , roughness R is [12M02]
1. >10
2. 2 to 4
3. 5 to9
4. 0
For accurate field pattern the primary antenna should produce [12S01]
1. a plane wave of uniform amplitude & phase over a distance r
2. a plane wave of uniform amplitude & phase over a distance r²
3. a plane wave of non uniform amplitude & phase over a distance r
4. a plane wave of uniform amplitude over a distance r
Directivity is defined as ratio of [12S02]
1. maximum radiation intensity to average radiation intensity
2. minimum radiation intensity to average radiation intensity
3. average radiation intensity to maximum radiation intensity
4. average radiation intensity to minimum radiation intensity
One of the following method is used in computation of directivity [12S03]
1. Orange slice
2. FEM
3. Trapezoidal
4. MM
One of the following method is used in computation of directivity [12S04]
1. Conical cut
2. FEM
3. Trapezoidal
4. MM
Waves that arrive at receiver after reflection or scattering in the ionosphere are known as [12S05]
1. sky waves
2. surface waves
3. ground waves
4. troposperic waves
Ground wave signal divided as [12S06]
1. space and surface wave
2. space and sky wave
3. surface and sky wave
4. reflected and refracted wave
Space wave is made up of [12S07]
1. direct wave
2. reflected wave
3. refracted wave
4. diffracted wave
Reflection factor for horizontal polarization, R_his [13D01]
Electric field for space wave is [13M01]
For smooth surface roughness R is [13S01]
1. <>
2. > 20
3. 10
4. 5
When the incident wave is near grazing over a smooth earth the reflection coefficient is [13S02]
1. -1.0
2. -2
3. 1
4. 10
The attenuation function dependent on [13S03]
1. distance , frequency, constants of earth
2. distance & radiation
3. constants of earth & delay
4. phase, constants of earth & radiation
For un attenuated surface wave, the attenuation function is [13S04]
1. 1
2. 10
3. 5
4. 2
At Ψ=0, un attenuated surface attenuation function ( at low frequency and good ground conductivity) value is [13S05]
1. 2
2. 10
3. 5
4. 0
At Ψ =0 , surface of earth ground wave attenuation factor A is [13S06]
2. F-10
3. F²
4. 0
For surface wave numerical distance depends on [13S07]
1. frequency, ground constants, actual distance to transmitter
2. frequency, ground constants
3. phase, frequency, ground constants
4. ground constants, actual distance to transmitter
The phase constant `b` is a measure of [13S08]
1. power factor angle of earth
2. ground constant
3. numerical distance
4. attenuation factor
For vertical dipole antenna over a plane earth , electric field is [14D01]
Space wave field of a horizontal dipole in the plane perpendicular to axis of dipole is [14D02]
Real part of conductivity of ionized gas is [14M01]
For a wave propagating in a dielectric medium of permittivity, & incident upon a second medium of , the reflection coefficient of horizontally polarized wave, R_h is [14M02]
If earth constant and frequency are such that ,then earth will be [14S01]
1. resistive[100 ohms]
2. reactive
3. conductive
4. resistive(1000 ohms)
The numerical distance interms of phase constant b and for surface wave is [14S02]
If earth constant and frequency are such that x > > in _r then power factor angle is [14S03]
1. 0
2. 10
3. 2
4. 5
If earth constant and frequency are such that x > > in _r ,then earth will be [14S04]
1. resistive
2. inductive
3. conductive
4. capacitive
Approximate value of collision frequency in Ionosphere is [14S05]
E region extends from [14S06]
1. 90 - 130 km
2. 20 - 30 km
3. 40 - 50 km
4. 1 - 10 km
In the plane parallel to axis of dipole the space wave field is [15D01]
The ratio of horizontal to vertical field will be [15D02]
Reflection factor for vertical polorization R_v is [15D03]
The horizontal component of electric field of surface wave E_h is [15M01]
For VHF propagation between elevated antennas, one of the following is considered [15S01]
1. surface wave neglected
2. surface wave considered
3. sky wave neglected
4. space wave neglected
For VHF propagation between elevated antennas, one of the following is considered [15S02]
1. Ψ is very small
2. Ψ =100
3. Ψ =90
4. Ψ =50
For VHF propagation between elevated antennas, one of the following is considered [15S03]
A vertically polarized wave at the surface of earth will have [15S04]
1. forward tilt
2. backward tilt of 10
3. no tilt
4. backward tilt of 20
The vertical component of electric field of surface wave E_v is [15S05]
The magnitude of surface wave tilt depends on [15S06]
1. conductivity & permittivity of earth
2. reactivity of earth
3. permeability of earth
4. permeability & permittivity of earth
For a wave propagating in a dielectric medium of permittivity, & incident upon a second medium of , the reflection coefficient of vertically polarized wave, R_V is [16D01]
The refractivity of atmosphere, N is [16M01]
1. (77.6 / T) P +( 4810 e / T)
2. (77.6 / T) +( 4810 e / T)
3. P +( 4810 e / T)
4. (77.6 / T) P +( 4810 e )
Radius of curvature ρ of earth is [16M02]
The curvature of the earth affects the propagation of [16S01]
1. ground wave signal
2. sky wave signal
3. surface wave signal
4. duct signal
The divergence factor D for (spherical earth) ground reflected wave is [16S02]
1. <>
2. 2
3. > 10
4. 5
If the ground reflected wave is reflected from spherical earth, its energy is [16S03]
1. more diverged
2. less diverged
3. unaffected
4. more converged
Curves that show the variation of modified index of refraction with height is known as [16S04]
1. M curves
2. N curves
3. H curves
4. E curves
Standard propagation occurs when the modified index of refraction increases [16S05]
1. linearly with height
2. exponentially with height
3. linearly with distance
4. uniformly with height
If the slope of M curve decreases near the surface of earth, _ _ _ _ _ _ _ propagation results [16S06]
1. sub standard
2. super standard
3. standard
4. non standard
If the slope of M curve increases near the surface of earth, _ _ _ _ _ _ propagation results [16S07]
1. super standard
2. sub standard
3. standard
4. non standard
Tropospheric forward scatter can provide reliable beyond the horizon signal for distances upto [17D01]
1. 300 or 400 miles
2. 100 or 200 miles
3. 500 or 1000 miles
4. 10 to 50 miles
If the lower side of the duct is at surface of earth, it is known as a [17M01]
1. surface duct
2. space duct
3. sky duct
4. tropospheric
Elevated ducts found at elevations of [17M02]
1. 1000 to 5000 ft
2. 20 to 10,0 ft
3. 500 to 1000 ft
4. 8000 to 15000 ft
In folded dipole, two identical conductors in parallel serve as [17S01]
1. transformer
2. generator
3. load
4. source
When a reflector such as a copper screen is placed closed to a half wave antenna, the resultant radiation pattern is [17S02]
1. uni directional
2. conical
3. bi directional
4. triangular
If the modified index decreases with height over a portion of the range of height, the rays will be curved downward and this condition known as [17S03]
1. duct propagation
2. sky propagation
3. space propagation
4. tropospheric propagation
When the inverted portion of M curve is elevated above the surface of the earth, the lower side of the duct is also elevated, and the duct is called an [17S04]
1. elevated duct
2. surface duct
3. space duct
4. sky duct
Elevated ducts are due to a subsidence of [17S05]
1. large air masses
2. ionosphere
3. troposphere
4. water vapor
Over land areas, surface ducts are produced by [17S06]
1. radiation cooling of the earth
2. water vapor
3. heating of earth
4. large air masses
Trapping more likely occurs at [17S07]
1. UHF
2. VHF
3. VLF
4. HF
Narrow band signals due to tropospheric forward scatter propagation have been Received up to [18D01]
1. 600 miles
2. 700 miles
3. 1000 miles
4. 800 miles
Plasma frequency ω _p is given by [18M01]
Approximate value of collision frequency in Ionosphere is [18M02]
During day time, F layer splits into [18S01]
2. E & D
3. C & D
4. C & E
The electron density in Ionosphere will be [18S02]
1. 10⁴ electrons/cc
2. 10 electrons /cc
3. 10² electrons/cc
4. 1000 electrons /cc
C region extends from [18S03]
1. 50 - 70 km
2. 20 - 30 km
3. 40 - 50 km
4. 1 - 10 km
D region extends from [18S04]
1. 70 - 90 km
2. 60 - 70 km
3. 40 - 60 km
4. 5 - 10 km
Other layers with in E region that do not have a permanent existence are called [18S05]
1. sporadic E layers
2. sporadic F₁ layers
3. sporadic F₂ layers
4. sporadic D layers
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ represents the combined effects of collisions in all species of particles present. [18S06]
1. collision frequency
2. angular frequency
3. plasma frequency
4. spatial frequency
The variation in collision frequency V with height depends on [18S07]
1. gas pressure, electron thermal velocity & ion density
2. gas pressure, collision frequency
3. gas pressure, electron thermal velocity & plasma frequency
4. gas pressure, electron thermal velocity & earth constant
The maximum ionization density ,N for any layer is [19D01]
Maximum usable frequency is [19M01]
For E layer, critical frequency, f_E is [19M02]
The refractive index of Ionosphere, n is [19S01]
Sudden ionospheric disturbance known as [19S02]
1. dellinger effect
2. meissner effect
3. skin effect
4. miller effect
Shown in Figure(a) represents Figure(a) [19S03]
1. Surface duct
2. Elevated duct
3. Sky duct
4. Standard atmosphere
Dellinger effect produces [19S04]
1. complete radio fade out
2. partial radio fade out
3. complete radio reception
4. improved radio signal reception
In ionospheric storms, the radio wave propagation becomes [19S05]
1. very erratic
2. very much reliable
3. slightly degraded
4. reliable
If the ionosphere is turbulent and loses its normal stratification, then this type of irregularity is known as [19S06]
1. ionospheric storm
2. sporadic ionosphere
3. non deviative ionospheric absorption
4. deviative ionospheric absorption
Shown in Figure(a) Figure(a) [19S07]
1. standard atmosphare
2. surface duct
3. elevated duct
4. sky duct
The attenuation factor for ionosphereic propagation α is [20D01]
real part of Effective permittivity of ionized gas is [20D02]
Debye length, λ _D is [20M01]
Thomson scattering is incoherent at altitudes above [20M02]
1. 100 km , for f > 200 MHz
2. 200 km for f > 500 MHz
3. 300 km for f > 100 KHz
4. 400 km for f > 100 GHz
The irregularity of ionosphere occurring only in polar regions during a period of sunspot maximum is known as [20S01]
1. polar cap absorption
2. non deviative polar absorption
3. deviative polar absorption
4. sporadic polar absorption
The absorption that occurs in D region is known as [20S02]
1. non deviative absorption
2. deviative absorption
3. polar cap absorption
4. sporadic absorption
The absorption that occurs in the region when the wave is bent is called [20S03]
1. deviative absorption
2. non deviative absorption
3. polar cap absorption
4. sporadic absorption
Lowest useful high frequency (LUHF) depends on [20S04]
1. effective radiated power
2. meissner effect
3. earth constants only
4. polar cap absorption
LUHF depends on [20S05]
1. absorption characteristics of ionospher for paths between transmitter and receiver
2. meissner effect
3. earth constants only
4. polar cap absorption
LUHF depends on [20S06]
1. required field strength & radio noise
2. meissner effect
3. earth constants only
4. polar cap absorption